Approaches Flashcards
(115 cards)
1
Q
What are the basic assumptions of the Behaviourist Approach?
A
- We are born as a blank slate – a ‘tabula rasa’ – everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
- Extreme ‘nurture’ end of nature-nurture debate.
- Argues that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than on things like cognitive processes which can only be inferred – therefore behaviourists rejected the idea of introspection!
- Lab experiments are the best way to achieve this!
2
Q
What is the Pavlovian Conditioning?
A
Also known as classical conditioning, Pavlovian conditioning posits that behaviors can be learned through the association between different stimuli.
- Classical conditioning (Watson 1913) involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response.
3
Q
What is a Neutral Stimulus?
A
- A stimulus that initially does not elicit a particular response or reflex action. In other words, before any conditioning takes place, the neutral stimulus has no effect on the behavior or physiological response of interest.
- For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of a metronome was a neutral stimulus initially, as it did not cause the dogs to salivate.
4
Q
What is an Unconditioned Stimulus?
A
- This is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning needed. In Pavlov’s experiment, the food was the unconditioned stimulus as it automatically induced salivation in the dogs.
5
Q
What is a Conditioned Stimulus?
A
- This is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly associated with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
- For instance, in Pavlov’s experiment, the metronome became a conditioned stimulus when the dogs learned to associate it with food.
6
Q
What is a Conditioned Response?
A
This is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
- It typically resembles the unconditioned response but is triggered by the conditioned stimulus instead of the unconditioned stimulus.
- In Pavlov’s experiment, salivating in response to the metronome was the conditioned response.
7
Q
What was the procedure Pavlov used with his dogs when researching classical conditioning?
A
- First, the dogs were presented with the food, and they salivated. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response.
- Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking metronome was introduced just before he gave food to his dogs. After a number of repeats (trials) of this procedure, he presented the metronome on its own. The sound of the clicking metronome on its own now caused an increase in salivation.
- So, the dog had learned an association between the metronome and the food, and a new behavior had been learned.
- Because this response was learned, it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.
8
Q
What are the two requirements for classical conditioning?
A
Includes 2 requirements:
- A natural relationship must exist between a stimulus (object or event) and a reaction.
- The stimulus that elicits the reaction is paired with a neutral stimulus (which would not normally cause any reaction) over several trials.
The outcome is that the previously-neutral stimulus will on its own elicit the reflex reaction
9
Q
What is temporal contiguity in the Pavlov’s dogs experiment?
A
- Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time (such as a bell).
- He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned stimulus (bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not occur.
10
Q
What is the impact of Pavlov’s study on behaviourism?
A
- Pavlov’s work laid the foundation for behaviorism, a major school of thought in psychology.
- The principles of classical conditioning have been used to explain a wide range of behaviors, from phobias to food aversions.
11
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
- Operant conditioning is a learning process that modifies behavior through reinforcement and punishment.
- Positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior, while positive and negative punishment decrease behavior.
12
Q
What is a Skinner box?
A
A device used to objectively record an animal’s behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).
13
Q
What are neutral operants?
A
Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
14
Q
What are reinforces?
A
Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
15
Q
What are punishers?
A
Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
16
Q
How is negative reinforcement shown in Skinner’s experiment?
A
- Rat sees red light appear above lever and presses it = electric shock stops or avoided
- Rat sees red light appear above lever again learns that electric shock stops or is even prevented = NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT for this behaviour because it is removing/avoiding something unpleasant.
- Neg reinforcement = more likely to repeat behaviour
17
Q
How is positive reinforcement shown in Skinner’s experiment?
A
- Rat bumps into lever and a food pellet comes out = eats it
- Rat bumps into lever again learns that another food pellet comes out = POSITIVELY REINFORCED for this behaviour
- Because it is getting something it likes, wants or needs it continues to press the lever = learning by consequences.
- Pos reinforcement = more likely to repeat behaviour
18
Q
What is Positive Reinforcement?
A
- Behaviour produces a consequence that is pleasant or satisfying for that person/animal increased likelihood of that desirable behaviour
19
Q
What is Negative Reinforcement?
A
- Behaviour removes a consequence that is unpleasant (aversive) increased likelihood of that desirable behaviour
20
Q
What is Positive Punishment?
A
- Behaviour produces a consequence that is unfavourable or aversive for that person/animal decreased likelihood of that unwanted behaviour
21
Q
What is Negative Punishment?
A
- Behaviour removes a consequence that is pleasant (reward) decreased likelihood of that unwanted behaviour
22
Q
What are the strengths of the Behaviourism approach?
A
- Allows psychologists to investigate the effect of the environment on behaviour
- Real-world applications: The principles of conditioning can be applied to many real-world problems and behaviors.
- Many useful applications such as desensitisation (treating Phobias)
- Scientific credibility: Behaviourism uses scientific methods like objectivity and replication to measure observable behavior in controlled lab settings. This has helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline.
- It provides a strong counter-argument to the nature side of the nature-nurture debate.
- Nomothetic: The behaviourist approach develops general laws about learning that can be applied to everyone.
23
Q
What are the limitations of the Behaviourism approach?
A
- Ignores individual differences: The behaviourist approach assumes that everyone responds to stimuli in the same way, which ignores individual differences = it is reductionist
- Mechanistic view of behaviour: The behaviourist approach views humans and animals as passive responders to their environment, with little conscious insight into their behavior.
- Environmental determinism: The behaviourist approach views all behavior as determined by past experiences, which can be seen as deterministic.
- Use of this perspective often relies on laboratory experiments which lack ecological validity
- Low external validity: Lab studies often don’t represent real-world scenarios, so the results may not be generalizable or useful in real-world situations.
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Ethical concerns may be raised.Some question the ethics of animal experiments, such as those conducted by B.F. Skinner using the Skinner Box
Many animal studies are used which open up the ethical debate/cause problems when generalising to humans.
24
Q
What are the basic assumptions of the Social Learning Theory?
A
- Bandura (1962) proposed Social Learning Theory, the main principles of which state that a child learns vicariously by observing the actions and consequences of actions of role models and then goes on to imitate these role models.
- This theory therefore explains that behaviour involves both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors. It is learning through observing others.
- Bandura claims that children are more likely to imitate pro-social behaviour because this is the behaviour that they are likely to be rewarded for performing. Pro-social behaviour is socially acceptable and encouraged as it fits into societal norms.
25
What are the four mediating factors that are required for imitation to take place?
- Pay **attention** to the role model.
- **Remember** what they saw.
- Be **physically capable** of performing the behaviour.
- Be **motivated** to perform the behaviour.
26
What is modelling in SLT?
- A form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour through **observing another individual** performing that behaviour.
- The individual performing the role is known as a **model** (live models/symbolic model).
- Models provide **examples** of behaviour that can be observed then reproduced through imitation
27
What is imitation in SLT?
- The action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour.
- They key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated are:
- the characteristics of the model
- the observer’s perceived ability to perform that - behaviour
- the observed consequences of the behaviour
28
Who is a child more likely to imitate?
- Same sex role model.
- Similar in age.
- Powerful/influential – such as celebs.
- Real rather than a cartoon.
- Consequences of models behaviour.
29
What is identification in SLT?
- Is a form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude/behaviour in order to be **associated** with a particular person/group(models).
- It refers to the extent to which the individual **relates** to the model and feels similar to the model.
- The more similar they see themselves to the model, the more they would expect to experience the same outcomes in situations.
30
What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT?
- Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through **observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour.**
- Individuals can observe the **consequences** experienced by a model and then **make judgements** as to the likelihood of experiencing that outcome themselves.
31
What are the role of mediational processes?
- Refers to the **internal mental process** that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual to those stimuli.
- These mental factors **mediate** in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
32
Describe the mediational processes?
1. **Attention** - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
2. **Retention** - how well the behaviour is remembered
*(1,2-learning of the behaviour)*
3. **Motor reproduction** - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
4. **Motivation** - the will to perform the behaviour, which is based of whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
*(3,4-performance of the behaviour)*
33
What are the key points to the Bandura Bobo Doll Study?
- Experiments wanted to study how children learned to behave aggressively.
- The adult represented a role model behaving aggressively towards a large inflatable doll, called a Bobo doll.
- He found that children who saw an aggressive model reproduced more of the aggressive acts than children who saw a non-aggressive model.
- Another finding was that the children showed significantly more imitation of a same-sex model, and boys performed more acts of aggression than girls.
34
Describe the Bandura Bobo Doll study?
- Bandura et al carried out an experiment involving children who observed aggressive and non aggressive adult models and then were tested for imitative learning in the absence of the model.
- Half of the children saw aggressive behaviour (striking it with a mallet, verbal aggression) towards the Bobo doll and the other half saw non-aggressive models.
35
What were the findings of the Bobo Doll Experiment?
- Children who observed the aggressive model reproduced a good deal of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the model.
- 1/3 repeated the model’s verbal responses.
- The other half of children displayed no aggression.
36
What was the conclusion reached in the Bobo Doll Study?
- Boys will imitate aggressive behaviour more readily than girls
- Both sexes will copy the behaviour of adults than that of children.
- Confirmed his belief that children learn from their social environment, which provides models of behaviour as well as expectations of appropriate behaviour.
- The key processes of social learning are observation, imitation and reinforcement.
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38
What are the limitations to the Social Learning Theory?
- Only looked at the immediate changes in children’s behaviour.
- **Problem of causality** - *Siegel and McCormick (2006)* suggested that young people who possess deviant attitudes would seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours.
- So the cause of delinquency may not be due to role models but the possession of deviant attitudes before associating with deviant peers.
- Mainly conducted on children and rarely investigates adult behaviour.
39
What are the limitations to SLT regarding biological influences?
- Underestimates the role of biological influences: the boys in the experiment were more aggressive then the girls which can be explained by hormonal factors such as **testosterone** which is linked to aggressive behaviour. Furthermore *Pillay (2000)* found that levels of testosterone were positively correlated with levels of aggression.
- SLT does not take any biological explanations of aggression into account. *Lavine (1997)* found increased levels of **dopamine** activity were associated with increased aggressive behaviour.
40
What are the strengths of the Social Learning Theory?
- **Phillips (1986)** found that following major boxing matches in the US that homicide rates increased. Showing that adults are also influenced by role models. It also suggests viewers may have been imitating aggressive behaviour that they saw was rewarded.
- **Cultural Variations:** SLT can explain aggression in all cultures as it states we learn by observing and imitating the social world around us.
- **Kung San tribe**
- Very little or no evidence of violence at all.
- Put down to child rearing practices as parents do not punish bad behaviour but seek to distract their child’s attention onto something else.
- Furthermore within this society aggression is frowned on by all members of the society and even aggressive postures are not performed.
41
How can SLT be used in real world applications?
Useful application-to increase understanding on human behaviour such as:
- **Criminal justice:**
SLT can be used to create programs that promote positive behaviours, provide support, and build self-efficacy.
- **Crime prevention**
SLT can help inform strategies to reduce crime rates by promoting positive role models and supportive environments.
- **Education**
SLT can be used in educational settings to teach new skills and promote positive behaviours.
42
What are the basic assumptions of the cognitive approach?
- The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make **inferences** about **internal mental processes.** The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
43
What are the key beliefs of the cognitive approach?
- Mental processes of the mind should be studied
- They should be/can be studied scientifically by making inferences.
- The mind works like a computer.
- Models should be used to demonstrate the function of mental processes
44
What is Attention as a cognitive process?
- In cognitive psychology, attention is the ability to concentrate on certain stimuli while ignoring others.
- However, attention is limited in terms of both capacity and duration. In other words, we can only focus on so much for so long
45
What are inferences?
- An inference is the act of drawing conclusions from evidence and using reasoning to assume how something (I.e the mental processes) work.
46
What is Perception as a cognitive process?
- The process of receiving and interpreting information from the environment through the senses.
- It's a cognitive activity that helps people understand the world around them.
47
What is Language as a cognitive process?
- Language is a complex cognitive process that is a vital part of communication.
- It is a **generative** system that involves mental operations like phonological, syntactic, and semantic analysis
For example:
- **Cognitive Theory of Language Acquisition:** This theory studies the mental processes that help people learn language
- **Aphasia:** condition that severely impairs language functions
48
What is Thinking as a cognitive process?
- Thinking is the mental process of processing information, forming ideas, and making connections.
- It's also known as cognition.
49
What are Schema?
- Schema’s are **mental structures that represent an aspect of the world**, such as an object or event.
- They are unique to an individual and develop based on your **experience**. They tell us how to behave in certain situations.
- Schema’s can be useful as they allow us to **fill in the gaps** when information is lacking based on past experiences however they may also exclude anything which **does not conform** to our established expectations or ideas about the world.
50
Why can Schema be problematic?
- This can be problematic as Schema’s can cause individuals to focus on things **which confirm people’s pre-existing beliefs** and ideas rather than allow us to accept new ones.
51
What are the strengths of the Cognitive approach?
- This has helped to understand how we form impressions of other people within social psychology and how we may form **biases** that can influence how we interpret other people's behaviours due to our schema’s.
- When applying the cognitive approach to psychopathology it has also highlighted that dysfunctional behaviour can usually be attributed to **faulty or irrational thought processes** which preceded the behaviour itself further highlighting its validity.
- Ld to practical real world applications and the development of **CBT** based treatments which have proven effective in the treatment of OCD and depression which could only be effective if the problems themselves were cognitive based as this approach suggests.
- The cognitive approach uses **experimental methods** to conduct research as it provides researchers with a rigorous method to collect and evaluate evidence which is a major strength of this approach
52
What are the limitations of the Cognitive Approach?
- A major weakness however is that the cognitive approach **relies on computer based models** to explain how human coding occurs.
- Terms such as “encoding, storage and retrieval” are taken from computer terminology and there is a huge difference between information processing which occurs with machines and organic biological structures such as the human mind.
- One issue is the **inference may not be correct** – they are only assumptions based on reasoning.
- Possible low **ecological validity and generalisation to real life situations** as it is usually measured in laboratory environments.
53
How is the cognitive approach reductionist and deterministic?
- Such explanations are also over-simplifying how the mind works as it is much more complex than we can map using such models which limit us.
- Such use of models portray humans as mechanistic and lacking free will which is also not evidently accurate.
54
What are the basic assumptions of the Humanistic Approach?
- Humanistic psychology emphasises the **inherent goodness** of humans.
- Humanistic psychology emerged in the **mid-20th century** as a response to both behaviourism and psychoanalysis.
- It focuses on the importance of **individual experience** and **personal growth**.
- It tries to understand the **whole person** and the uniqueness of each individual's experience.
- It also champions the belief in **free will**.
- It believes that individuals have the ability to make conscious choices about their **own lives**.
55
What is Free Will presented in the Humanistic Approach?
- The Humanistic Approach believes that human beings have free will.
- We are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development.
- We are all unique and psychology should concern itself with subjective experience of the individual.
- Often referred to as the person-centred approach.
56
What are the certain characteristics displayed by self actualised individuals?
1. **Realism**: A clear perception of reality.
2. **Autonomy**: Independence and reliance on personal experiences.
3. **Peak experiences**: Profound moments of love, understanding, or happiness.
4. **Acceptance**: Self-acceptance and acceptance of others.
5. **Deep relationships**: Meaningful connections with fewer, but closer, individuals.
57
What is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
- This model visualises human needs in a pyramid structure.
- As one satisfies the foundational needs, they can aim for higher-level psychological needs and ultimately achieve self-fulfilment.
58
Describe the Hierarchy of Needs.
1. **Physiological needs**:
- The base layer, which includes essential needs for survival such as food, water and sleep.
2. **Safety needs**:
- Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek security, stability and protection.
3.**Love and belonging**:
- This encompasses interpersonal relationships: friendships, family connections and romantic attachments.
4. **Esteem needs**:
- This involves the need for self-respect, recognition and appreciation from others.
5. **Self-actualisation**:
- At the pyramid's peak, it represents achieving one's full potential and realising personal growth and self-fulfilment.
59
What did Carl Rogers believe about self-actualisation?
- For self-actualisation to happen, Rogers believed that one's inner feelings and outward behaviour should match.
- When they align, it's called **'congruence'**.
- He thought self-growth was an **ongoing journey**, always aiming for more understanding and harmony within oneself.
- Rogers distinguished between the **'real self'** and the **'ideal self'**.
- **‘Unconditional positive regard’** nurtures the 'real self', fostering genuine self-worth.
- However, **‘conditions of worth’** can create a gap between the 'real self' and the 'ideal self', potentially stunting personal growth and self-actualisation.
60
What is 'self-concept' in humanistic terms?
A person's thoughts and feelings about themselves which is mae up of their self-image, ideal self and self-esteem.
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What is 'ideal self' in humanistic terms?
The person someone wants to be, which can change over time.
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What is 'real self' in humanistic terms?
The person someone actually is.
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What is 'Conditions of Worth' in humanistic terms?
The idea that people believe they are only worthy of love and belonging if they meet certain external demands. These conditions are often learned in childhood from significant others, such as parents.
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What is 'Congruence' in humanistic terms?
When a person's real self and ideal self are aligned, which leads to a positive self-image and self-esteem
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What is 'Incongruence' in humanistic terms?
When there is a gap between a person's real self and ideal self, which can lead to maladjustment
66
What is Client-Centered Therapy?
At its heart, this method seeks to provide an environment where clients can achieve self-awareness, self-acceptance and bridge the gap between their 'real' and 'ideal' selves.
67
What are the three core conditions offered by client-centered therapy?
1. Unconditional positive regard:
- Accepting and valuing the client without any conditions.
- This allows them to express feelings without fear of judgment.
2. Empathetic understanding:
- Demonstrating a deep empathic understanding of the client's feelings.
- This helps them to confront and clarify their own emotions and thoughts.
3. Congruence:
- The therapist is genuine and transparent.
- This allows the client to be more open and honest about their feelings
68
What is the Humanistic influence on Counselling Pyschology?
- Referred to the patients as ‘clients’ and saw the individual as the expert.
- Therapy is **non-directive**, and the therapeutic atmosphere is warm, supportive and non-judgemental.
The therapist should provide the client with **genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.**
The aim of therapy is to increase the person’s feelings of self-worth, reduce the level of incongruence between the self and the ideal self, and help the person become a more fully functioning person.
69
What is evidence that supports client centered therapy?
- There are a number of studies that **support** client-centred therapy.
- One such study was conducted by **Gibbard and Hanley in 2008**.
- Over a **five-year period**, Gibbard and Hanley investigated the effectiveness of client-centred counselling within primary care settings.
- They analysed outcomes from **7,000 patients** experiencing a range of **psychological conditions**, including depression, anxiety and stress-related disorders.
- Patients' psychological distress was assessed using a **questionnaire**, both before and after they received counselling.
- The study found that person-centred counselling **significantly reduced levels of psychological distress**.
- A notable number of clients transitioned from categories indicating 'severe' distress to those indicating 'healthy' psychological states post-therapy.
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How can we criticise Maslow's Theories?
- One major limitation is the lack of **supporting evidence**.
- A study conducted by Aronoff in 1967 found **inconsistencies** with Maslow's proposed sequence.
- Aronoff assessed the relationship between the satisfaction of basic needs and the **subsequent progression** to higher-level needs.
- He compared two distinct job roles: **fishermen and cane cutters**.
- Aronoff found that fishermen, despite having **fewer basic needs met**, displayed characteristics associated with **higher-level needs** like esteem.
- In contrast, cane cutters, with **more basic needs satisfied**, showed **fewer signs** of higher-level need fulfilment.
- Aronoff’s study suggests that the progression through Maslow's hierarchy **isn't always linear or universal**.
71
What are some strengths of Humanistic Psychology?
- Humanistic psychology looks at the individual **as a whole**.
- Humanistic psychology is holistic, emphasising **personal growth** and **self-actualisation**.
- This differs from other approaches that might dissect behaviour into isolated variables, making it **resonate more** with personal experiences.
It has a **positive view** of humanity.
- The humanistic approach is often praised for its **positive and optimistic** view of human nature.
- It values **human potential** and the pursuit of happiness, which contrasts the often-pathological focus of some other psychological perspectives.
- It has been influential in **therapy**.
- Its concepts form the foundation of many **therapeutic practices**.
- Rogers' **client-centered therapy** has been influential and effective in helping many individuals lead fuller lives.
72
What are some criticisms of the Humanistic Approach?
1. There is a lack of **empirical evidence**.
- One major criticism of humanistic psychology is its **reliance on subjective experience** and lack of rigorous empirical evidence.
- Concepts like self-actualisation are hard to objectively measure, which makes them **less scientifically valid** in the eyes of some critics.
2. There may be a **cultural bias**.
- The focus on individual fulfilment and autonomy is closely tied to **Western values**.
- **Collectivist cultures**, which emphasise community and family over individual needs, might not resonate as strongly with humanistic principles.
3. It may be **too idealistic**.
- Some argue that the humanistic perspective is too optimistic and doesn't account sufficiently for the **more destructive aspects** of personality or behaviour.
73
What are the basic assumptions of the pyschodynamic approach?
- Human behaviour has **unconscious causes** that individuals are not aware of – many important influences on behaviour come from a part of the mind over which an individual has no direct awareness.
- **Childhood experiences** are really important influences on the development of adult personality and psychological disorders.
- An individual experiences **constant psychodynamic conflict** – different parts of the mind are in constant dynamic struggle with each other (often unconsciously) and the consequences of this struggle are important in understanding behaviour.
74
What is Freud's Theory of the Mind?
In Freud’s model of the mind it is seen as an “iceberg”. The conscious mind is the
part of the iceberg above the surface, the preconscious is a small part below the
surface and the unconscious is the remainder of the iceberg below the surface.
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What is the 'conscious mind'?
- The conscious mind consists of mental processes of which we are fully aware.
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What is the 'preconscious mind'?
The preconscious mind comprises of thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of through dreams or ‘Freudian slips’.
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What is the 'unconscious mind'?
- The unconscious contains biological drives and urges that influence our behaviour and personality, as well as **repressed memories**, all of which we are unaware.
78
What is the tripartite theory of personality?
According to Freud, we all have these three characters in our mind at the same time! If they are unbalanced, this can cause us a lot of **anxiety** and may eventually lead to **mental abnormality**.
- Character A is the id
- Character B is the ego
- Character C is the superego
79
What is the 'Id'?
- Id: Pleasure principle
~ pleasure, immediate gratification, selfish (i.e. that all your needs should be met immediately)
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What is the 'Ego'?
- Ego: Reality principle
~ rational (in the middle – makes the decision and faces the consequences)
81
What is the 'Superego'?
- Superego: Morality principle
~conscience, sets high standards of right and wrong (pushes you to obtain your ‘ego ideal’: your view of what is right)
82
How does the tripartite personality develop?
- Id is present at birth – a newborn baby is completely selfish
- Ego develops by the age of three – child becomes aware that other people have feelings and that it can’t always have its own way
- Superego appears around age five – sense of morality (conscience) passed on by parents – child internalises this
83
What are the psychosexual stages of development?
- Believed child development occurred in **five stages**.
- Each stage represents the focus of **libido** (sexual energy) on a different area of the body.
- Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully onto the next stage.
- If a stage is not resolved, the individual is said to be **fixated** at that stage which then affects the personality in adulthood.
84
What is the 'Oral Stage'?
- Birth to 18 months.
- The **mouth** is the main focus of pleasure during this stage.
- The **mother’s breast** is the object of desire.
- Successful completion of this stage is demonstrated by **weaning** – eating independently.
- **Oral fixation** – smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical.
85
What is the 'Anal Stage'?
- 18 months to 3 years.
- **Anus** is main source of **pleasure**.
- Child gains pleasure over whether to withhold or expel faeces.
- Successful completion marked by potty training.
- **Anally retentive** - very tidy, stubborn, perfectionist, obsessive.
- **Anally expulsive** - generous but disorganised, messy, thoughtless.
86
What is the 'Phallic Stage'?
- Three to five years.
- The **genitals** are the focus of pleasure.
- Children develop their **gender identity** through the **oedipus complex** and the **electra complex**.
- **Phallic personality** – narcissitic, reckless, possibly homosexual.
87
What is the 'Oedipus Complex'?
- Occurs during the **phallic stage**
- Around age 3-5
- Boy wants his mother as his **‘primary love object’**
- Wants his father out of the way
- Fears that his father knows this and will castrate him as punishment
- Identifies with father to stop **castration anxiety**
88
What is the 'Electra Complex'?
- A girl also **desires** her mother
- But she realises she doesn’t have a penis like her father! **(Penis envy)**
- Becomes hostile towards her mother because she believes her mother has **castrated** her
- Develops **attraction** to father instead because she believes he can give her a baby, which will act as a penis substitute
- Eventually **resolves** feelings towards mother and identifies with her – doesn’t want to lose her mother’s love
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What is the 'Latency Stage'?
- Five to twelve years.
- Conflicts and issues are repressed.
- Leads to children unable to remember much of their early years.
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What is the 'Genital Stage'?
- Twelve years plus.
- Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty.
- Consequence of unresolved conflict – difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
91
What is regression in the stages of development?
- An individual can become fixated (stuck) at any stage of development if they experience either severe problems or too much pleasure during that stage.
- In times of anxiety, individuals may display behaviours that gave them comfort at an earlier stage. This is known as regression.
92
What are the beliefs about Dream Analysis?
- During dreaming the normal barriers to the unconscious are lifted.
- What you can recall in your dreams Freud called manifest content.
- Beneath this is the latent content which a therapist can interpret.
93
What is a 'Freudian Slip'?
- A Freudian slip is where you say or write something unintended
- Freud believed these slips were the unconscious pushing through
- The Freudian aspect is that repressed desires from the id (unconscious energies) burst to the surface without necessarily being endorsed by the superego (our sense of social norms).
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What is the background of Little Hans?
- Little Hans was a five year old boy with a phobia of horses.
- Hans seemed to especially dislike horses with black bits around the mouth or blinkers. During his analysis, he reported a dream in which he had several children, whose mother was his ‘Mummy’ and whose grandfather was his ‘Daddy’. One day when he was young he had seen a horse collapse and die in the street.
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How did Freud interpret Hans' phobia?
He concluded that:
- Horses were symbolic to Hans of his father (who wore glasses and had a black moustache).
- Hans was afraid that his father would punish him for desiring his mother by castrating him.
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What are some criticisms of the psychodynamic approach?
1. Freud’s theories were based on males and appear to ignore **females** and their sexuality.
- For example, his focus was mainly on the **Oedipus complex** and not the Electra complex.
- This means his work does not generalise to the female population and trying to apply theories based on males to females is problematic.
2. **Pseudoscience**
- Freud’s concepts are **not falsifiable**.
- For example, many of Freud’s concepts occur at an unconscious level, e.g. the id and the Oedipus Complex.
- This makes them difficult to prove and makes the approach more of a **pseudoscience** than a real science.
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What are some strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
- The Psychodynamic Approach remained the dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century.
- For example, it has been used to explain a **large range of phenomena**: personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender.
- This means that we now better understand behaviour and can go on to treat it where necessary.
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What is psychic determinism?
- The psychodynamic theory is deterministic
- This means that the approach suggests our behaviour is ruled by **unconscious processes**.
- For example, according to this approach, if a person develops a mental health issue, it is due to conflicts in their mind that they don’t know about and cannot control, and therefore there is nothing the person can do to avoid it.
- This is problematic as it **ignores the human characteristic of free will**.
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What are the basic assumptions of the Biological Approach?
- The biological approach suggests that everything psychological is at first biological, so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body such as **genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system**.
- From a biological perspective, the mind lives in the brain – meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis.
This contrasts with other approaches, for example, the cognitive approach that sees mental processes of the mind as being separate from the physical brain.
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What are Twin Studies used for?
- Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the **concordance rates** between pairs of twins (the extent to which both twins share the same characteristic).
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What is the genetic basis of behaviour within twins?
- **Monozygotic** (or identical) twins share 100% of each other's genes, whilst **dizygotic** (non-identical) twins share 50%.
- If identical (MZ) twins are found to have higher concordance rates than non-identical (DZ) twins – this would suggest a genetic basis.
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What is a genotype?
- The actual set of genes an individual has, or is made up of, is a genotype.
- The genetic material is made up of DNA, for sexually reproducing organisms, which are given by the sperm and egg of the parents.
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What is a phenotype?
- An individual's observed traits, such as behavioural and physical characteristics (shape, metabolic activities, size, colour, etc.), fall under an individual's **phenotype**.
- These behavioural characteristics and physical attributes are what determine an individual's ability to reproduce and survive in the environment.
- This illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept, that much of human behaviour depends upon an **interaction** between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).
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What is the theory of natural selection by Charles Darwin?
- The main principle of this theory is that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival (and reproduction) will continue in future generations, i.e. be naturally selected.
- This happens similarly to a farmer deciding which animals to use for breeding – the farmer selects the ones who possess desirable characteristics.
- In nature, natural selection takes place naturally, no one decides, the selection occurs simply because some traits give the possessor certain advantages. The possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these traits. If the individual survives but does not reproduce, the traits do not remain in the gene pool.
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How is the biological approach supported by scientific methods of investigation?
- To investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes use of a range of precise and highly scientific methods.
- These include scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs, family and twin studies, and drug trials.
- With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure biological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias.
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How is the biological approach supported by real-life application?
- An increased understanding of the biological processes which underpin mental health diseases has led to the development of **psychoactive drugs** e.g. for depression and schizophrenia.
- These may target specific candidate genes to directly treat the disorder or may alter neurotransmitter levels to help alleviate symptoms e.g. dopamine antagonists, such as **Chlorpromazine**, reduce dopamine action and so normalise neurotransmission in the hypothalamus and ventral striatum in the brains of schizophrenia sufferers.
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Why does the use of antidepressants counter the biological approach?
- Although antidepressants are successful for many patients, they are not 100% effective.
- **Study Cipriani et al ( 2018)** – comparison of 21 antidepressant drugs. Findings demonstrated a wide variation in their effectiveness. Although most were more effective than the placebos in comparative trials, they concluded that the effect of the medication was mostly modest.
- This is a limitation because this suggests that changing the brain chemistry of the brain alone may not account for all cases, for example depression
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Why does association and causal conclusions criticise the biological approach?
- The biological approach offers explanations for mental illness in terms of the action of **neurotransmitters** in the brain.
- The evidence for this relationship comes from studies that show a particular drug reduces symptoms of a mental disorder and it is assumed that the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder.
- This is a bit like assuming that the cause of a headache is a lack of paracetamol simply because taking paracetamol is effective in relieving symptoms of a headache. **Discovering an association between two factors does not mean that one is a cause.**
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How is the biological appoach being deterministic cause criticism?
- The biological approach is deterministic in the sense that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes over which **we have no control.**
- This has implications for the legal system and wider society. One of the rules of law is that offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions. If, for example, a criminal gene or a schizophrenia gene was discovered, this could lead to ‘diminished responsibility’ for these individuals, as well as shorter prison sentences.
- The **economic impact** would be that if such information about genes coding for mental health disorders or criminality were made public, then such individuals may be denied health insurance and jobs on this basis.
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How is the biological approaches stance on nature and nurture debated?
- MZ twins usually show higher concordance rates for mental disorders and psychological characteristics compared to DZ twins. From a biological perspective, this is often explained by how MZ twins share 100% of genes, compared to only 50% for DZ twins.
- However, this makes the naïve assumption that the only differences these twins have are genetic. MZ twins are more likely to grow up in the same household, be exposed to similar experiences and be raised using similar parenting styles. This may explain the differences in concordance rates between MZ and DZ twins, as opposed to only genetic differences. This may also explain why MZ twins often have higher concordance rates than ordinary siblings, despite also sharing 50% of genes.
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What was Wundt's Lab?
- The first ever lab dedicated to psychological enquiry was opened by Wilhelm Wundt
in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.
- The objective Wundt set himself was to document and
describe the nature of human consciousness.
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What is 'introspection'?
- Involved Wundt and his co-workers recording their own conscious thoughts, with the aim of breaking these down into their constituent parts. Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way is called structuralism.
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What were controlled methods?
- All introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time (such as a ticking metronome).
- The same standardised instructions were issued to all participants, and this allowed procedures to be repeated (replicated) every single time. - Thus, Wundt's work was significant in that it marked the separation of the modern scientific psychology from its broader philosophical roots
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