Approaches Flashcards
(146 cards)
1
Q
Describe Wundt’s role in the development of psychology.
A
Wundt founded his lab in Germany in 1879 and he contributed to the establishment of psychology as a science, separate from philosophy, physiology and biology.
He studied the structure of the human mind and believed this could be achieved by breaking down behaviours such as perception and sensation into their basic elements.
He’s known as the ‘father of psychology’ as he contributed to the use of empirical research.
He’s a founder of structuralism as he used introspection to learn more about our inner human experiences (eg. sensations, thoughts and feelings). This was done under controlled conditions in response to a stimulus (eg. a metronome).
2
Q
What is structuralism?
A
Studying the structure of the mind through introspection or internal reflection.
One of its founders was Wundt.
3
Q
What is introspection?
A
The act of reflecting on your thoughts and feelings and expressing them to others, mainly in response to a stimulus. This was the primary technique within structuralism.
4
Q
Why did Wundt develop structuralism?
A
He wanted to learn more about our inner human experiences connected to culture, sensations, thoughts and feelings.
He also wanted to organise and categorise the different structures of the mind.
From structuralism, Wundt developed different theories of psychological topics such as consciousness, perception, mental associations and human will.
5
Q
Outline Wundt’s method of introspection.
A
Asked participants to reflect on their thoughts and feelings in response to stimuli (eg. a metronome) and then they’d express those thoughts and feelings to others. This was done to learn more about inner human experiences connected to sensations, thoughts and feelings. It’s a branch of structuralism.
6
Q
How did Wundt establish controlled conditions during introspection?
A
People would be given the same stimulus and told to think about that stimulus.
The environment was controlled (lab), and so were the stimuli used, instructions given to participants and responses the participants could give (made results more comparable).
His participants were all highly trained and given things like a ticking metronome whilst they were told to think about the metronome. They’d then be asked to reflect on their conscious thoughts and overall observations of their thoughts by giving as much detail as possible.
7
Q
What did Wundt attempt to establish about stimuli and thoughts through introspection?
A
Attempted to establish a cause and effect relationship between the types of thought and sensation that a particular stimulus provoked by controlling extraneous variables.
8
Q
What did Wundt’s introspection involve?
A
Measuring reaction times to a stimulus and word associations whilst being exposed to these stimuli since he had a background in physiology and introspection involves analysing your own personality and actions.
9
Q
What was an issue with Wundt’s experiments?
A
He repeated the experiments and carefully recorded and compared them to get a general conclusion of the effects of the stimulus on the participants’ thought processes. However, the results when repeated in these early studies were inconsistent and therefore unreliable.
10
Q
What are the 5 key assumptions of behaviourism?
A
- All behaviour is learned from the environment (all behaviour is learnt directly from an interaction with our environment, apart from inborn reflexes; behaviour is the product of learning, not genetics; all behaviour can be understood in terms of stimulus-response links; people are born tabula rasa; and extreme nurture theory).
- Animals and humans learn in the same way (accept Darwin’s theory of evolution and animals are generally used in experiments).
- The mind is irrelevant- we cannot measure and directly observe a person’s mind - we can only gain measurable data by studying behaviour.
- Behaviour depends on its consequences - if a behaviour has pleasant consequences, it’s likely to be repeated and vice versa.
- The key form of learning is conditioning (classical and operant).
11
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Learning by association.
Demontrates how a new association can be made between a neutral stimulus and an already existing response.
12
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Learning by reinforcement.
Concerned with the use of consequences or reinforcements to modify and shape behaviour.
13
Q
What is a neutral stimulus?
A
An event that doesn’t produce an innate response.
14
Q
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
A
An event that produces an innate, unlearned reflex response.
15
Q
What is an unconditioned response?
A
An innate, unlearned reflex behaviour that an organism produces when exposed to an unconditioned stimulus.
16
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A
An event that produces a learned response. Previously a neutral stimulus.
17
Q
What is a conditioned response?
A
A learned physical reflex behaviour that an organism produces when exposed to a conditioned stimulus. Previously a unconditioned response.
18
Q
Describe the process of classical conditioning.
A
There’s a NS that doesn’t cause an innate response. There’s also a UCS that does elicit an innate response, which is the UCR, in an organism-reflex.
Pairing the NS and UCS produces an UCR.
The NS becomes a CS and it produces a CR which was previously the UCR. This is because the NS is now associated with the UCR so they become the CS and CR. It often takes many occasions of the pairing for an association to be made.
19
Q
Outline Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning.
A
Pavlov was studying dogs and he discovered that dogs salivated when a bell rang. This was because as the dogs were given their food, a bell would ring. The NS of the bell initially produced no response, whereas the UCS of food produced the UCR of salivation. When these 2 stimuli were paired over time, the dogs began to associate the NS with the UCS and this pairing would produce the UCR of salivation. The NS became a CS which produced a CR - the bell ringing would cause the dogs to salivate.
20
Q
What was Watson and Rayner’s aim in the Little Albert experiment?
A
To find out if classical conditioning works on humans. Specifically, to find out if a fear response can be conditioned into a 9 month old baby boy. Also, to see if the fear response will be generalised to other animals and objects and how long the conditioning lasts.
21
Q
What was Watson and Rayner’s sample in the Little Albert experiment?
A
One baby boy, Albert B, aged 9 months at the start of the study and 11 months when the conditioning began. Albert’s mother was a wet nurse at the hospital and Albert was chosen because he seemed healthy and quite fearless.
22
Q
What was Watson and Rayner’s method in the Little Albert experiment?
A
1) Baseline assessment - showed no fear when presented with a rat, monkey, dog, cotton wool.
2) Albert was presented with a white rat and as he reached for it a steel bar behind him was hit. Albert jumped cried at the noise and fell forwards.
3) This was repeated several times over 7 weeks.
4) Albert’s response to the rat alone was tested.
RM - Lab experiment.
IV - before and after conditioning.
DV - response to rat (fear).
Opportunity sample.
23
Q
What were Watson and Rayner’s findings in the Little Albert experiment?
A
Eventually Albert could be presented with the rat - without the iron bar- and he would cry.
In addition, the Watson and Rayner found that Albert developed phobias of objects which shared characteristics with the rat, including the family dog, a fur coat, some cotton wool and a Father Christmas mask. (Generalisation of fear.)
Over the next few weeks and months Little Albert was observed and 10 days after conditioning, his fear of the rat was much less marked. This dying out of a learned response is called extinction - over time, associations become weaker.
Even after a full month, the fear was still evident, and the association could be renewed by repeating the original procedure a few times.
24
Q
What did Skinner believe?
A
As a behaviourist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behaviour. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at observable behaviour.
Where the early behaviourists had focused their interests on associative learning, Skinner was more interested in how the consequences of people’s actions influenced their behaviour.
25
What did Skinner suggest and who was he influenced by?
Skinner suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans/animals operate on their environment.
His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect. According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
26
How did Skinner (1948) study operant conditioning?
By conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a ‘Skinner Box’ which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
27
What is positive reinforcement?
Providing a consequence that an individual finds rewarding. This strengthens behaviour, making it more likely to be repeated.
28
How did Skinner (1948) study positive reinforcement?
1. Placed a hungry rat in the Skinner Box.
2. The Box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved around, it accidentally knocked the lever.
3. Then a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.
4. The rat quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times in the Box.
29
What is negative reinforcement?
Removal of an unpleasant consequence (acts as a reward). This strengthens behaviour, making it more likely to be repeated.
30
How did Skinner (1948) study negative reinforcement?
1. Placed a rat in the Skinner Box and the electric grid would be on. Caused some discomfort.
2. The Box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved around, it accidentally knocked the lever.
3. Then the electric current was switched off.
4. The rat quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times in the Box.
31
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
Directly applying an unpleasant consequence or removing a potentially rewarding consequence.
Designed to weaken or eliminate a response, making it less likely to be repeated.
32
How did Skinner (1948) study punishment in operant conditioning?
1. Placed a rat in the Skinner Box.
2. The Box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved around, it accidentally knocked the lever.
3. Then the electric current would be turned on and the rat would experience some discomfort.
4. The rat quickly learned to avoid the lever after a few times in the Box.
33
(+) Explanatory power evaluation for behaviourism.
Behaviourism focuses on solely observable behaviour which increases validity and plausibility of theories.
34
(+/-) Method evaluation for behaviourism.
Scientific due to use of lab experiments - high level of control.
However use of animals leads to extrapolation.
35
(+) Real-life application evaluation for behaviourism.
There is real-life application for behaviourism.
Operant conditioning - token economy programmes.
Classical conditioning - systematic desensitisation.
36
(+) Hard determinism evaluation for behaviourism.
Hard determinism.
Stimulus-response relationships are supported by the determinist approach (all behaviour has a cause and is thus predictable, free will is an illusion and our behaviour is governed by internal/external forces over which we have no control).
37
(-) Environmentally reductionist evaluation for behaviourism.
Behaviourism is mechanistic - seen as passive with machine-like responses.
Environmentally reductionist - reduces complex human behaviour to simple stimulus-response blocks, learned associations and reinforcement patterns.
Processing during learning isn’t considered.
38
(-) Nature-nurture evaluation for behaviourism.
Extreme nurture perspective - born ‘tabula rasa’ and learn behaviour from environment.
Largely ignored the influence of nature.
39
(-) Ethics evaluation for behaviourism.
Use of animals can be considered morally unethical - animal research for human benefit.
40
What are the 5 key assumptions of SLT?
1. Bandura agreed that a great deal of our behaviour is learned through what we experience ourselves. This is called direct learning. But he argued that we also learn via observation and imitation. This is called indirect learning.
2. In SLT, Albert Bandura (1977) states behaviour is learned from the social environment through the process of observational learning.
3. Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences. Therefore he does not see learning as a simple stimulus-response reflex. Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work.
4. Most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a ‘guide for action’.
5. Use of mediational processes, identification and vicarious reinforcement.
41
What is SLT?
Connects behaviourism and cognitive approach.
It looks at mental factors that are involved in learning.
It considers the factors that mediate between stimulus and response.
These cognitive/mental factors shape (mediate) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is learnt/acquired.
42
What are the 4 mediational processes of SLT?
Attention - observer must actively pay attention to the model.
Retention - they must then encode and form a memory of the behaviour that the model performed.
Reproduction - they think about whether they have the physical ability to reproduce an action. May require practice before imitation or may not have the ability to reproduce it at all.
Motivation - the desire to reproduce the behaviour - must want to imitate the model.
43
What is identification in SLT?
More likely to imitate behaviour if we identify with a role model. This could include:
If we feel we are similar to the role model (eg age, gender).
If we see them as attractive/high status (eg parents, celebrities).
44
What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT?
Vicarious reinforcement is our tendency to repeat or duplicate behaviours for which we observe models being rewarded.
(Vicarious punishment is when a model is observed being punished for a behaviour, so the observer is less likely to repeat that behaviour.)
45
What was Bandura’s aim in the bobo doll study?
To find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model and less aggressive behaviour if exposed to a non-aggressive role model. Also, to see if the sex of the role model and the child made a difference, specifically to see if the children were more likely to imitate a same sex role model and if boys were more aggressive than girls.
46
What was Bandura’s sample in the bobo doll study?
Opportunity sample - mainly children of students/lecturers.
36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old.
47
What was Bandura’s experimental method and design in the bobo doll study?
Experimental method: lab experiment. Gender aspect is quasi (comparison of girls and boys).
Experimental design: matched pairs. Participants were matched on pre-existing aggression levels from observations on four 5-point rating scales. Aggressive model shown to 24 children. Non-aggressive model shown to 24 children. No model shown (control condition) - 24 children.
This balances individual differences.
48
What was Bandura’s first step in the method for the bobo doll study?
24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a 'Bobo doll'. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner - they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted ‘Pow, Boom’.
Another 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were exposed to a non-aggressive model who played in a quiet and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing with a tinker toy set and ignoring the bobo doll).
The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were used as a control group and not exposed to any model at all.
49
What was Bandura’s second step in the method for the bobo doll study?
All the children (including the control group) were subjected to 'mild aggression arousal’.
Each child was (separately) taken to a room with relatively attractive toys.
As soon as the child started to play with the toys the experimenter told the child that these were the experimenter's very best toys and she had decided to reserve them for the other children.
50
What was Bandura’s third step in the method in the bobo doll study?
Child was taken to the next room with a mixture of aggressive and non-aggressive toys and the bobo doll.
All the children were in that room for 20 mins, observed and rated through a one-way mirror.
Observations were taken at 5 second intervals (240 response units per child).
51
What were Bandura’s results in the bobo doll study?
Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses (imitated specific actions) than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
Girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male and verbal aggression if the model was female.
Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls.
Boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviour than girls.
52
What were Bandura’s conclusions in the bobo doll study?
The findings support Bandura's (1977) SLT.
That is, children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observation through watching the behaviour of another person.
This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children.
53
How did Bandura study vicarious reinforcement in SLT?
Bandura (1965) used a similar experimental set up to bobo doll study above to test vicarious reinforcement. The experiment had different consequences for the model's aggression to the three groups of children.
One group saw the model's aggression being rewarded (being given sweets and a drink for a ‘championship performance’), another group saw the model being punished for the aggression (scolded), and the third group saw no specific consequences (control condition).
When allowed to enter the playroom, children in the reward and control conditions imitated more of aggressive actions of the model than did the children in the punishment condition.
This shows vicarious reinforcement does make the observed behaviour more likely to be imitated by the observer.
54
(+) Cause and effect evaluation for Bandura’s bobo doll study.
Able to establish cause and effect - lab experiment has high control of EVs (eg toys available, aggression arousal, how long children are left in the room). Can be sure that IV is impacting the DV.
55
(+) Replicability evaluation for Bandura’s bobo doll study.
Easily replicable as it’s a carefully controlled lab experiment with standardised procedure (eg timings for each stage). Bandura himself even conducted later variations.
56
(-) Lacks ecological validity evaluation for Bandura’s bobo doll study.
Lacks ecological validity as it’s a controlled setting - in real life, EVs may impact children’s behaviour.
Also lacks mundane realism - model is a stranger, adult acts aggressively - kids may think it’s a game. Bobo doll was a rare toy, kids may not know how to play with it.
57
(-) Low population validity evaluation for Bandura’s bobo doll study.
Low population validity as children are aged 3-6 years old. Can’t be sure that older children would be affected by IV in the same way. They were also all from the same area, potentially from more intelligent parents (may raise children differently), higher socio-economic class etc so may affect others differently.
58
(+/-) Ethics evaluation for Bandura’s bobo doll study.
Parents gave consent, no deception.
However protection from harm - potentially could cause children to repeat aggressive behaviour in the future though this is unlikely and would most likely be temporary if it did occur.
59
(+) Real life application/high explanatory power joint evaluation for SLT.
For example, as a result of Bandura’s research, media outlets now have age ratings and watershed to prevent children from observing and imitation inappropriate behaviour.
This shows how the understanding of the role of modelling has allowed us to shape behaviour in the real world.
This is significant because it has allowed the theory to positively contribute to society, which as a result also highlighted its explanatory power.
60
(+) Less reductionist evaluation for SLT.
Environmentally reductionist but less so then others (eg. behaviourism).
For example, the theory considers mediational processes that take place between an action being observed and imitated.
This is important because it considers the idea that we also learn through observations, not just our experiences. Bandura considered how the cognitive processes of attention, retention, reproduction and motivation act as mediators between the stimulus (observation) and response (imitation).
This is significant because taking an integrated approach may be a better way to explain complex human behaviour.
61
(+) Evidence based approach evaluation for SLT.
For example, Bandura’s research directly measured behaviour by assessing if children would observe and imitate aggressive behaviour in response to a bobo doll. They found that children who viewed an aggressive role model would behave more aggressively with a bobo doll than those who saw a non-aggressive doll.
This shows how observation and imitation can be used to explain aggressive behaviour.
This is significant because it increases explanatory power and validity of the approach as an explanation of human behaviour.
62
(-) Research methods are highly artificial evaluation for SLT.
For example, Bandura’s use of the bobo doll study to support his theory can be considered flawed in this respect.
However it’s criticised for lacking mundane realism as model was a stranger which is highly unlikely in the real world.
This is significant because it means that findings of observation resulting in imitation in research may not be generalisable to real life, thus lacking ecological validity.
63
(-) Extreme nurture perspective evaluation for SLT.
For example, SLT believes all human behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation of models in our social environment.
This underplays the role of biological influences (eg genes) in human behaviour.
This is significant because it means it may not be a complete explanation of human behaviour.
64
(+) Soft determinism evaluation for SLT.
Behaviour is influenced by other factors (eg observation) but there is some free will as the person must have the desire to imitate the models.
65
(+) Ethics evaluation for SLT.
Experiments are generally ethical (despite Bandura’s being unethical due to taught aggression).
66
What are the 5 assumptions of the cognitive approach?
1. The cognitive approach focuses on internal processes in the mind.
(Believed that if we want to understand an individual’s behaviour, we first need to understand their mind. Therefore, cognitive psychology refers to the study of human mental processes and the role they play in thinking, feeling, and behaving - they are interested in the variables that mediate between stimulus/input and response/output, how humans process information and how this shapes behaviour. People actively try to make sense of their environments by considering the meaning of stimuli and organising information in a structured way.)
2. Unlike behaviourists, cognitive psychologists do believe that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically. (Therefore, they use methods such as lab experiments, controlled observations, brain scans. However they do acknowledge that processes are private (not directly accessible) so psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences.)
3. Use of models - as cognitive processing is not observable, it employs models/metaphors to explain what is happening in the mind and help to explain complex and abstract theories. For example, the computer analogy and multi-store model.
4. We use schemas to organise information about the world.
5. Cognitive neuroscience - formally formed in MIT in 1956 and cognitive neuroscience was coined by George Miller and Michael Gazzaniga in the 1970s.
67
What is inference in the cognitive approach?
Making an assumption about a person’s mental processing which cannot be directly measured, based on their behaviour.
68
What is a schema in the cognitive approach?
Schemas are ways of organising knowledge and experience of the world into 'templates' that are used to make sense of objects, situations and people we encounter.
Schemas come from our experiences. They are a framework of beliefs and expectations that shape our cognitive processing.
69
What would a cognitive model of the memory system suggest?
A cognitive model of the memory system would suggest that it has two main components, one for dealing with the information that we need to process now (working memory - sensory register and STM), and another for storing all the information we have acquired in the past and might need again in the future (long term memory).
These components are assumed to be interconnected, because current information processing may need to draw on past experience and because the outcome of current information processing might need to be stored for future reference.
70
What are some strengths of schemas?
‘Fills in the gaps’ based on previous experiences of stifling with a memory.
Mental shortcut - can prevent the brain from becoming overwhelmed.
Can help us predict future situations to reduce anxiety.
71
What are some weaknesses of schemas?
‘Filling in the gaps’ can lead to inaccuracy of memory - problematic for things like eye witness testimony.
Negative schemas can lead to depression.
If schema doesn’t match reality, this can lead to distorted view/distortion.
72
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
Combination of cognitive and biological approach.
Result of development in brain scanning technology.
Involves ‘brain mapping’ - mapping brain areas/structures to specific cognitive functions.
73
How has the development of cognitive neuroscience benefitted psychology?
More scientific/objective in research study.
Nature/nurture - demonstrated the brain’s plasticity throughout life, supporting the role of experience.
Free will/determinism debate - demonstrated the role of experience in shaping the brain, showing biology isn’t destiny.
74
What are some similarities between the mind and computers in the computer analogy (cognitive approach)?
Input
Processing
Memory stores
Output
System is connected
75
What are some differences between the mind and computers in the computer analogy (cognitive approach)?
Memory on hard drive isn’t manipulated by itself.
Emotions in humans.
Humans have free will (can choose output).
Human memory is unreliable and unlimited.
76
What are 2 limits to processing?
Capacity - limited, only a certain amount of information can be processed at once.
New tasks - require significantly more processing than old tasks, leaves less processing for other tasks.
77
(+) Scientific methodology evaluation for cognitive approach.
The research methodology can be considered scientific. For example, the use of lab experiments, such as Baddeley’s STM studies. Lab experiments provide controlled conditions which reduces extraneous variables and therefore cause and effect can be established. The use of standardised procedure also means that reliability can be checked through Spearman’s Rho test. This is a strength because it improves the internal validity of the research conducted and contributed towards psychology being considered a science.
78
(+) Practical applications evaluation for cognitive approach.
The approach has practical applications, and understanding the role of cognitive processes in human experience and behaviour can help us to understand areas such as mental health and consequently develop treatments. For example, CBT is used as a treatment for depression with talking therapy to understand triggers and positive behaviours to help patients feel better. It can be delivered through group sessions, 1 to 1, online or CD. This is significant because it has allowed the theory to positively contribute to society, which also highlights its explanatory power.
79
(+) Easily combinable evaluation for cognitive approach.
The approach is easily combined with other approaches. As many approaches accept the role of the mind in human behaviour, the approach lends itself to combination with other approaches. For example, cognitive neuroscience combines the cognitive approach with the biological approach. This is a strength as it can lead to a greater and more complete understanding of complex human behaviour.
80
(-) Limited methodology evaluation for cognitive approach.
The research methodology can be considered limited. For example, the use of brains scans means that some inferences still have to be made which reduces reliability as they can be incorrect, alongside the scans being time-consuming and expensive. Furthermore, brain scans are correlational so cause and effect can’t be established. This is a weakness because it reduces the validity of the research conducted within the approach, reducing its ability to effectively support the theories within the approach.
81
(-) Machine reductionist evaluation for cognitive approach.
The cognitive approach can be considered a form of machine reductionism because the comparison to machines doesn’t allow for emotional and motivational factors. For example, the computer analogy (input, processing, output and storage) compares the mind to a computer which is too simplistic and ignored emotion. This is a limitation as the comparison to machines doesn’t allow for emotional and motivational factors, and as a result, may limit the explanatory power of the approach.
82
(-) Undermines the role of genetic factors evaluation for cognitive approach.
The cognitive approach undermines the role of genetic factors. Although aspects of the cognitive approach, such as cognitive neuroscience, account for the role of the brain and it fails to acknowledge that genetic factors can play a role in behaviour. For example, in mental health disorders, doctors see signs that anxiety and depression are partly hereditary from studies of twins. Identical twins have the same set of genes but fraternal twins only share half their genes. Identical are more likely to both have anxiety/depression compared to fraternal twins, which suggests conditions may be linked to certain genes, making them hereditary. This may suggest that the cognitive approach is an incomplete explanation of more complex human behaviour, such as mental health.
83
(+) Soft determinism evaluation for cognitive approach.
Soft determinism, schemas are influenced by internal mental processes but we can make reasoned decisions and consciously process information.
84
What are the main assumptions of the biological approach?
All behaviour has a biological root - argues all of our behaviour is shaped by our biology and everything psychological had its basis in the biological and therefore we must look at biological structures such as the brain, CNS, endocrine system and hormones if we are to understand why we behave and think as we do.
Genotypes and phenotypes influence an individual’s behaviour.
Genes also shape psychological characteristics such as intelligence, mental illnesses and personalities.
Some diseases are thought to have a genetic basis eg. dementia, some types of cancers and some types of heart disease.
Twin studies - to determine whether particular behaviours have a genetic basis.
Neurochemistry’s influence on behaviour.
Evolution’s influence on behaviour.
85
What is the role of genes in the biological approach?
A gene is the basic unit of heredity.
It is made up of DNA and occupies a fixed locus on a chromosome.
Genes code the information needed to specify potential physical and biological traits.
This approach argues that genes also shape psychological characteristics such as intelligence, mental illnesses and personalities. Genetic information is inherited from our parents.
86
What is a genotype (biological approach)?
An individual’s genetic make-up occurs at conception and provides the genetic code for an individual’s development.
We have 100,000 genes and we all have a unique genotype (apart from monozygotic twins).
87
What is a phenotype (biological approach)?
The product of the genotype interacting with the environment.
88
How are twin studies carried out (biological approach)?
Psychologists explore the role of genetics in behaviour by carrying out twin studies.
They use twin studies to determine whether particular behaviours have a genetic basis.
There are 2 types of twins used.
Monozygotic twins - identical twins (share 100% of genetic make-up).
Dizygotic twins - non-identical twins/fraternal twins (share 50% of genetic make-up).
Concordance rate: the percentage of cases in which both members of a pair have the same attribute.
The likelihood of MZ both having a behaviour/disorder compared with the likelihood of dizygotic (DZ or non-identical) gives an indication of how much the behaviour may be genetic.
We would expect that if a trait or illness had a genetic basis that there would be a higher concordance rate in MZ twins than DZ twins.
If MZ twins both have higher rates of an ability e.g. drawing, or a condition, e.g. depression, than DZ, it would suggest a genetic basis as they share 100% if their genetic make-up.
89
What is concordance rate (biological approach)?
The percentage of cases in which both members of a pair have the same attribute.
90
How do biological structures influence behaviour (biological approach)?
Outer layer of brain is the cerebral cortex.
Each hemisphere consists of 4 lobes.
Each lobe is thought to be responsible for different functions (localisation theory).
If a function is controlled by only one hemisphere, this is known as lateralisation theory.
Frontal lobe - Broca’s Area for speech production, front of it for inhibition/social control/working memory, top has Motor Area for voluntary movement for opposite side of body.
Temporal lobe - front of it has auditory areas and Wernicke’s Area for speech comprehension.
Occipital lobe - has visual area.
Parietal lobe - top has Motor Area for voluntary movement for opposite site of body and Somatosensory Area for sensory information from skin.
91
How does neurochemistry influence behaviour (biological approach)?
Chemicals in the brain (neurotransmitters and body-hormones) are said to be related to behaviour and influence our reactions to our environment. Eg. testosterone is linked to aggression.
92
How does evolution influence behaviour (biological approach)?
Evolution is the very gradual change in inherited traits of a species over many generations, via adaptation to the environment, natural selection.
Darwin theorised that within a given population, specific traits are more helpful than others when it comes to the survival of the species - natural selection.
Traits that increase the chance of survival (eg. aggression) are more likely to be genetically passed on to future generations. This creates a process where undesirable traits are more likely to fade over time, while desirable traits carry on strongly.
In line with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, evolutionary psychologists focus on how evolution has shaped the mind and behaviour. Thus, behaviours that make survival more likely will be passed on and vice versa.
93
(-) Treatments for mental illnesses evaluation for biological approach.
The biological approach has discovered treatments for mental illnesses such as depression. However, the problem is that they have only found correlations, not causation. For example, particular drugs containing neurochemicals may reduce symptoms of a mental disorder, but this doesn’t mean that it’s a lack of this neurochemical that caused the illness in the first place. This is a limitation because association doesn’t equal causation and thus this knowledge cannot be applied to either prevent the development of such illness or explain why they occur.
94
(-) Hard determinism evaluation for biological approach.
A limitation of the biological approach is it’s hard determinism. This means that its explanation for human behaviour revolves around evolution and inherited genetic make-up, which are beyond conscious control, and largely ignores free-will. For example, evolutionary theory is used to account for a number of gender differences including levels of stress and aggression. This is a limitation because it suggests humans don’t have free will and can’t be responsible for their actions, and it underestimated the uniqueness of humans and the ability to shape their own futures.
95
(+) Scientific methodology evaluation for biological approach.
A strength of the biological approach is that it employs highly scientific methods of research to investigate genetics, drug treatments and the localisation of brain functions. The approach uses lab experiments and drug trials which are standardised, creating high levels of internal control and reducing subjectivity. For example, this approach employs MRI scans to investigate the brain and the areas of the brain that are argued to be responsible for certain disorders and behaviours such as language processing. This is a strength because it means that research findings on localisation, for instance, provides empirical evidence which is both objective and reliable.
96
(+/-) Gottesman’s empirical evidence evaluation for biological approach.
There’s empirical evidence to support the biological approach’s theory. Research evidence has been found that supports the role of genetics in the development of some psychiatric disorders. For example, Gottesman (1991) reviewed 40 twin studies in a meta-analysis and found concordance rates for schizophrenia as 48% in MZ and 17% in DZ twins. This is a strength as Gottesman’s research highlights the role of genes in the development of certain psychiatric disorders and thus acts to validate the biological approach.
However, the biological approach overlooks the confounding variable of sharing the same environment and doesn’t explain the higher concordance rates of DZ twins than ordinary siblings. Furthermore, if the cause was just only genetic, we’d expect the concordance rate to be 100% in MZ twins. Thus, a purely genetic explanation is an incomplete one.
97
(+) Practical application evaluation for biological approach.
The biological approach has had many useful practical applications. This means that its theories and research findings on the effects of genetics and biological processes have been applied outside the lab and thus have external validity. For example, the biological approach has allowed for the development of many biological treatments (eg. drug treatments) of disorders such as depression and anxiety. This is a strength because it shows that the approach has widespread use and has been applied to help improve the quality of people’s lives.
98
(-) Biologically reductionist (Soomro et al, 2008) evaluation for biological approach.
One limitation of the biological approach is that it is biologically reductionist. This means it breaks down its explanations of human behaviour and psychological conditions to genetics and neurochemistry and underplays the role of environment/psychological influences. For example, this approach explains depression and OCD mainly in terms of inheritance and levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. Soomro et al (2008) reviewed 17 studies of the use of SSRIs with OCD patients and found them to be more effective than placebos in reducing the symptoms of OCD up to 3 months after receiving treatment. This is a limitation as it often neglects other factors that could contribute to the cause of depression/OCD such as the effects of our environment and thus can be argued to be an incomplete explanation.
99
What are the main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
Role of unconscious and preconscious.
Parapraxes.
Id, ego and superego.
Defense mechanisms.
Psychosexual stages.
100
What is the unconscious mind (psychodynamic approach)?
The conscious mind (what we are aware of) is only a very small part of what influences our behaviour.
Our behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives.
The unconscious consists of biological drives and repressed memories from our childhood.
The unconscious, Freud argues, is the driving force of our behaviour.
The unconscious also protects us from fear, conflict and trauma that are too painful for the conscious mind to deal with.
Freud states that trauma and conflict is repressed in the unconscious.
Our behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences.
101
What did Freud believe about dreams (psychodynamic approach)?
According to Freud, 'dreams serve as a royal road to the unconscious'. They represent a form of wish fulfillment. Freud believed that studying dreams provides insight into the unconscious activities of the mind. Dreams are formed through two mental processes: unconscious forces that construct a wish expressed by the dream, and censorship that distorts the expression of the wish.
102
What is the preconscious mind (psychodynamic approach)?
The preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently aware of, but which can easily be brought to consciousness.
It exists just below the level of consciousness, before the unconscious mind - become aware during dreams or slips of the tongue.
All behaviour has a cause (usually unconscious), even slips of the tongue - parapraxes.
Slips of the tongue reveal our deep unconscious desires.
Therefore, all behaviour is determined.
103
What is the id in the tripartite system (psychodynamic approach)?
Part of the unconscious mind.
Primitive part of our personality (pleasure principle) which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
Unconscious drives.
Present from birth - innate.
Selfish - demands immediate gratification.
Our behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences.
104
What is the ego in the tripartite system (psychodynamic approach)?
Part of the conscious mind.
The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the decision-making component of personality.
The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the id's demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society.
The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
Develops around age 2.
Reduces tension between the id and superego by using defence mechanisms.
105
What is the superego in the tripartite system (psychodynamic approach)?
Part of the preconscious mind.
Incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others.
It develops around the age of 5 - end of the phallic stage of psychosexual development.
Internalised sense of right and wrong.
The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.
The superego consists of 2 systems: the conscience and the ideal self. The conscience can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the ego gives in to the id's demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt.
Morality principle - develops from moral standards of same-sex parent - punishes ego for wrong-doing via guilt.
106
Why did Freud develop the psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
UNCONSCIOUS
As a person grows physically, certain areas of their body become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both.
Freud believed that life was built around tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its discharge.
Freud stressed that the first 5 years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality.
The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms.
The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for gratification into socially acceptable channels.
Gratification centres in different areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual.
107
What is the oral stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
0-1 years.
Mouth, sucking, swallowing.
Mother’s breast is object of desire.
For example, use of dummy in baby’s mouth.
108
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the oral stage of Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
Nail biting, chewing pen, smoking/vaping.
Sarcastic, critical personality.
109
What is the anal stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
1-3 years, ego develops around age 2.
Pleasure is fixated on anus.
Faeces is object of desire.
110
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the anal stage of Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
Anally retentive - perfectionist, obsessive.
Anally expulsive - messy, thoughtless.
111
What is the phallic stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
3-5 years, superego develops around age 5.
Fixation on genital areas.
Oedipus or Electra Complex.
112
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the phallic stage of Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual (traditional viewpoint).
113
What is the latency stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
Age 5 to puberty.
Earlier conflicts are repressed.
No conflict in this stage.
114
What is the genital stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
Sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty.
115
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the genital stage of Freud’s psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)?
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
116
What was the case study of Little Hans (psychodynamic approach)?
Little Hans was a 5-year-old boy with a phobia of horses. The primary aim was to treat the phobia.
Freud's therapeutic input in this case was minimal, and a secondary aim was to explore what factors might have led to the phobia in the first place, and what factors led to its remission.
From around age 3, Hans showed an interest in 'widdlers’, both his own penis and those of other males, including animals. His mother threatened to cut off his widdler unless he stopped playing with it.
Hans's fear of horses worsened, and he was reluctant to go out in case he met a horse. Freud linked this fear to the horse's large penis.
The phobia improved, relating only to horses with black harnesses over their noses. Hans's father suggested this symbolized his moustache.
Freud's interpretation linked Hans' fear to the Oedipus Complex, the horses (with black harnesses and big penises) unconsciously representing his fear of his father.
Hans told his father of a dream which was interpreted as being a reworking of exchanges in the parental bed. Hans enjoyed getting into his parents’ bed in the morning but his father often objected (big giraffe calling out because he’d taken the crumpled giraffe - mother - away). Freud’s dream analysis.
Freud suggested Hans resolved this conflict as he fantasised about himself with a big penis and married his mother. This allowed Hans to overcome his castration anxiety and identify with his father.
117
What is the Oedipus Complex (psychodynamic approach)?
Around 3 to 6 years, phallic stage.
Boy develops intense sexual love for his mother.
Sees father as rival and wants to get rid of him.
Father is bigger and more powerful so boy develops the fear that, seeing him as a rival, his father will castrate him.
Develops defense mechanism to cope - identification with aggressor.
Stresses all similarities to father, adopting same attitudes, mannerisms and actions - thinks if father sees him as similar, won’t feel hostile towards him.
118
What is the Electra Complex (psychodynamic approach)?
Around 3 to 6 years, phallic stage.
Girl desires father, realises she doesn’t have a penis.
Leads to penis envy and desire to be a boy.
Resolved by girl repressing desire for father, substituting wish for penis with wish for baby.
Blames mother for ‘castrated state’.
Feelings repressed to remove tension, identifies with mother to have babies.
119
Why are defence mechanisms used (psychodynamic approach)?
Parts of the unconscious mind (the id and superego) are in constant conflict with the conscious part of the mind (the ego).
This conflict creates anxiety, which could be dealt with by the ego's use of defence mechanisms.
When unconscious conflicts between the id and the superego cannot be resolved by the ego, they create anxiety.
To reduce this anxiety, we use defence mechanisms such as repression.
Defence mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.
According to Freudian theory, defence mechanisms involve a distortion of reality so that we are better able to cope with a situation.
120
What is the defence mechanism of repression (psychodynamic approach)?
This was the first defence mechanism that Freud discovered, and arguably the most important. Repression is an unconscious mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious.
Thoughts that are often repressed are those that would result in feelings of guilt from the superego.
For example, in the Oedipus complex, aggressive thoughts about the same-sex parent are repressed.
This is not a very successful defence in the long term since it involves forcing disturbing wishes, ideas or memories into the unconscious, where, although hidden, they will create anxiety (still unaware of cause, just generally feeling anxious).
121
What is the defence mechanism of denial (psychodynamic approach)?
Denial involves blocking external events from awareness.
If some situation is just too much to handle, the person just refuses to experience it (know it’s happening but refuse to accept it).
This is a primitive and dangerous defence.
It can operate by itself or, more commonly, in combination with other, more subtle mechanisms that support it.
For example, smokers may refuse to admit to themselves that smoking is bad for their health.
122
What is the defence mechanism of displacement (psychodynamic approach)?
Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute target.
The target can be a person or an object that can serve as a symbolic substitute. Someone who feels uncomfortable with their sexual desire for a real person may substitute a fetish.
Someone who is frustrated by his or her superiors may go home and kick the dog or hurt a family member.
123
(-) Hard determinism evaluation for psychodynamic approach.
Hard determinism (psychic) - Freud argues that free-will is an illusion.
Freud believed that we’re driven by our childhood and our internal conflicts - controlled from the inside through the unconscious.
This is a limitation as it removes responsibility and accountability for behaviour.
124
(+/-) Real-life application evaluation for psychodynamic approach.
Has real-life application - psychoanalysis treatment (dream analysis) to treat mental disorders, developed by Freud. Type of talking therapy mostly used for neurosis like schizophrenia. Ways of accessing the unconscious (hypnosis, free association, dream analysis) - now aware of any repressed conflict/trauma and can now resolve it.
This is a strength as it shows the approach has positively contributed to society by helping those with mental illnesses. However, in extreme cases of mental illness (eg extreme schizophrenia), this treatment could make it worse.
125
(+) Explanatory power evaluation for psychodynamic approach.
Theories can be applied to real-life eg. psychoanalysis treatment for mental disorders. Many later theories (eg. Bowlby’s attachment theories) were based on Freud’s theories - he had one of the largest influences on psychology, as he was the first to explain personality, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender identity. He also drew attention to the importance of childhood experiences and relationships with parents.
This is a strength because it means that Freud’s theories have practical application and so have high explanatory power.
126
(+/-) Case study method evaluation for psychodynamic approach.
The approach uses case studies which collect lots of in-depth qualitative data due to being longitudinal. For example, Freud followed Little Hans from ages 3 to 5 and gathered information about his dreams, relating it to the Oedipus Complex. This is a strength because it provides evidence to support Freud’s theories and case studies create better understanding of abnormalities which helps to create theories. However, it’s also a limitation as case studies aren’t generalisable as they’re studies of abnormal individuals (eg. Little Hans’ phobia of horses).
127
(-) Lacks scientific rigour evaluation for psychodynamic approach.
The use of methods like dream analysis are highly subjective and depended highly on Freud’s own opinions. Furthermore, the unconscious is inaccessible and so is untestable using empirical methods. Popper says that this approach doesn’t meet the scientific criterion of falsification as the methods/theories used in the psychodynamic approach cannot be disproven. This is a limitation as the approach isn’t open to empirical testing and has been accused of being a pseudoscience.
128
What are the main assumptions of the humanistic approach?
Humanistic psychologists start from the assumption that every person has their own unique way of perceiving and understanding the world.
Claims humans are self-determining and have free-will. This means that they see humans as being able to make choices and that they are not formed simply by biology and environment.
Biology and external events do have an effect, but individuals have control - we are active agents not passive puppets.
Rogers and Maslow believed that we are all unique so we should not concern with scientific models or generalisations about behaviour.
It focuses on the subjective experience (not a macro approach).
Person-centred approach.
Humanism relates to an approach which studies the whole person, and the uniqueness of each individual (holistic).
129
(+/-) Psychic reductionist evaluation for psychodynamic approach.
Psychic reductionist as it reduces behaviour to unconscious drives and early childhood experiences. However, it does consider multiple layers of the mind, offering a more complex view than some other reductionist approaches. This is both a strength and a weakness as it does reduce behaviour down but not fully.
130
What did Maslow believe about humans (humanistic approach)?
Maslow is famous for proposing that human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs.
From Maslow's perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic (comes from within). The purpose of learning is to bring about self-actualisation (uniquely human).
According to Maslow we all have an innate drive to reach our full potential.
Maslow's theory of learning highlighted the differences between experiential knowledge and spectator knowledge.
He regarded spectator, or scientific, knowledge to be inferior to experiential.
Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people - focused on the positive, what can go right, what people can achieve.
He stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs- if a need is not met we will be motivated to meet it.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs depicts this.
131
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (humanistic approach)?
The lowest level of needs are physiological and survival needs such as hunger and thirst.
Basic needs must be met before higher needs can be addressed. The 4 lowest levels are referred to as deficiency needs.
Safety/security needs are 4th.
Love and belonging needs are 3rd.
Self-esteem needs are 2nd.
1st level is known as a growth need - self-actualisation.
132
How does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs work (humanistic approach)?
Personal growth is all about individual development, self-fulfilment, reaching goals - this varies in terms of how individual reach it.
Not everyone will attain self-actualisation due to psychological barriers.
The deficiency, or basic needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the need to fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food the hungrier they will become.
One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualisation.
Every person is capable (as it’s about meeting your own personal needs) and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualisation.
Progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.
133
What did Rogers believe about humans (humanistic approach)?
For a person to develop fully or grow they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).
Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should.
Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals (self-actualisation).
However, whether a person does is dependent on the gap/difference between the way an individual sees themselves and their ideal self.
134
How does congruence work (Rogers, humanistic approach)?
Congruence - when perceived self and ideal self are similar.
Incongruence - when perceived self and ideal self aren’t similar.
If there is congruence between the perceived and ideal self, then self-actualisation is possible.
If there is great incongruence, then self-actualisation will not be possible due to low self-esteem etc.
135
What are conditions of worth (Rogers, humanistic approach)?
The criteria people set for love.
136
What is unconditional positive regard (Rogers, humanistic approach)?
Usually provided from parents first - someone who’ll love you and see you as a positive/good person no matter what.
137
What is conditional positive regard (Rogers, humanistic approach)?
People will only view you as positive or good if you meet their conditions of worth.
138
What is client-centred therapy (Rogers, humanistic approach)?
Client-centred therapy.
Many issues have roots in childhood.
Can be explained by an absence of unconditional positive regard.
Parents who limit their affection - by setting boundaries/conditions of worth - creating grounds for psychological problems.
Therapy - therapist provides unconditional positive regard absent from childhood - improves self-esteem/self-image and makes perceived self closer to ideal self (achieve congruence).
Client, not patient, as they are the expert - non-directive.
For a person to develop fully or grow, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).
139
(-/+) Methodology evaluation for humanistic approach.
The approach uses case studies which collect lots of in-depth qualitative data due to being longitudinal. However, qualitative data is subjective and unscientific. The humanistic approach also rejects the scientific method. This is a weakness because it reduces the credibility of psychology.
140
(+) Holistic evaluation for humanistic approach.
The humanistic approach advocates holism, not reductionism - that to understand an individual, we must look at a person in their entirety, not simply one aspect of their make-up or experience. For example, it emphasises free will, personal growth and subjective experience. This is a strength as it means we’re more likely to gain a full understanding, suggesting it’s a complete explanation of human behaviour.
141
(-) Deterministic evaluation for humanistic approach.
This approach is not deterministic as it strongly supports free will, emphasising personal choice, self-determinisation, and the ability to shape one’s own behaviour and future through conscious decisions (eg. everyone has the desire to self-actualise). This is a weakness because cause and effect of behaviour cannot be established and gives full accountability and personal responsibility which is somewhat unrealistic.
142
(+/-) Real-life application for Rogers evaluation for humanistic approach.
Rogerian therapy has transformed counselling techniques by focusing on how individuals perceive themselves consciously rather than how a counselor can interpret their unconscious thoughts or ideas, whereas in many other psychotherapuetic approaches, the therapist and their observations are deemed 'expert'.
This approach empowers the client by being client-centred and enabling the later to find their own solutions in a supportive environment.
However, it is best applied to 'milder' psychological conditions than more serious ones such as schizophrenia. This is generally a strength as it highlights the approach’s positive contribution to society and its explanatory power.
143
(+) Educational application for Maslow evaluation for humanistic approach.
Before a student's cognitive needs can be met they must first fulfil their basic physiological needs. For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential. Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened. This is a strength as it highlights the approach’s contribution to society and its explanatory power.
144
(+) Positive approach evaluation for humanistic approach.
Brings the person back into psychology and promotes a positive image of the human condition. This is empowering as it means that everyone can self-actualise, particularly compared to the psychodynamic approach where Freud believed that we are slaves to our past.
145
(-) Untestable concepts evaluation for humanistic approach.
Cannot scientifically measure self-actualisation etc. Maslow formulated the characteristics of self-actualised individuals from undertaking biographical analysis, a qualitative method. He read the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being self-actualised and developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic of this group of people. Rogers introduced the Q-sort as an attempt to bring in scientific rigour (objective measure of progress). The approach is also short on empirical evidence.
146
(-) Cultural bias evaluation for humanistic approach.
Humanistic concepts are associated with individualist/Western cultures, not collectivist cultures. This means it’s culturally bound, especially self-actualisation and isn’t generalisable to collectivist cultures.
