approaches

Question 1

Wundt and introspection - William Wundt established the first psychology lab

Answer 1

opened in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. The aim was to describe the nature of human consciousness in a carefully controlled and scientific environment - a lab.

Question 2

what is introspection

Answer 2

The examination of one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings using a scientific method.
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.

Question 3

Explain the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 3

Wundt first applied empirical methods (i.e based on evidence) to study human behaviour. Wundt and his colleagues opened the first scientific laboratory dedicated to understanding the mind (introspection). this was done by recording their own conscious thoughts which were broken down into different parts (structuralism). this was followed by behaviourism (e.g Watson) who focused on learning using experimental methods in labs. this meant that they had adopted a scientific approach and results could be replicated. finally, the biological approach can use sophisticated technology e.g PET scans to understand the brain.

Question 4

controlled procedures:

Answer 4

the same standardised instructions were given to all participants and stimuli (objects and sounds) were presented in the same order (standardised procedure)

for instance, participants were given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts, images and sensations, which were then recorded.

Question 5

structuralism:

Answer 5

introspection led to identifying the stature of consciousness by breaking it up into the basic structures: thoughts, images and sensations

this marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots.

Question 6

The emergence of psychology as a science: early behaviourists rejected introspection

Answer 6

Watson (1913) argued that introspection was subjective,
L in that it is influenced by a personal perspective.
According to the behaviourist approach, ‘scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured..

Question 7

1950s Behaviourist scientific approach dominated psychology.

Answer 7

Skinner (1953) brought the language and rigour of the natural sciences into psychology. The behaviourists’ focus on learning, and the use of carefully controlled lab studies, would dominate psychology for 50 years..

Question 8

1950s Cognitive approach studied mental processes scientifically.

Answer 8

Following the computer revolution of the 19505, the study of mental processes was seen as legitimate within psychology.
Cognitive psychologists likened the mind to a computer and tested their predictions about memory and attention using experiments..

Question 9

1980’s Biological approach introduced technological advances

Answer 9

Biological psychologists have taken advantage of recent
advances in technology, including recording brain
activity, using scanning techniques such as fMRI and
advances
EEG. and advanced genetic research..

Question 10

One strength of wundts work (controlled)

Answer 10

• aspects of Wundt’s work are scientific

for instance, he recorded the introspections within a controlled lab environment

he also standardised his procedures so that all participants recieved the same information and were tested in the same way

therefore Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approach in psychology that were to come.

Question 11

Limitation of Wundt’s research (subjective)

Answer 11

• other aspects of his research are subjective

Wundt relied on participants self reporting their ‘private’ mental processes. Such data is subjective. Participants may also have hidden some of their thoughts

this makes it difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’, one of the aims of science

therefore Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were naive and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry.

Question 12

strength of emergence of psychology as a science (scientific)

Answer 12

• research in modern psychology can claim to be scientific

psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences- to describe, understand and predict and control behaviour

Learning, cognitive and biological approaches all use scientific methods e.g lab studies and uncontrolled and unbiased

throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline.

Question 13

Limitation of psychology as a science (unrepresentative)

Answer 13

• some approaches use subjective data

humanistic approach does not formulate general laws of behaviour. Psychodynamic approach uses case studies with unrepresentative samples

Psychologist who study humans are active participants and therefore respond to demand characteristics

therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience is not desirable or possible.

Question 14

the behaviourist approach -focus on observable behaviour only

Answer 14

The behaviourist approach is only concerned with studying behaviour that can be observed and measured.
It is not concerned with mental processes of the mind.
Introspection was rejected by behaviourists as its concepts were vague and difficult to measure..

Question 15

Controlled lab studies.

Answer 15

Behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab studies to achieve this..

Question 16

Use of non-human animals

Answer 16

Behaviourists suggest the processes that govern learning are the same in all species, so animals can replace humans as experimental subjects.

Question 17

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Answer 17

Classical conditioning Pavlov’s research - conditioning refers to learning by dogs to salivate when a bell rings:
association.

Before conditioning:
UCS = food, UCR = salivation,
NS = bell

During conditioning:
Bell and food occur at same time.

After conditioning:
CS = bell, CR = salivation

Pavlov showed how a neutral
stimulus (bell) can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response, CR)
through association..

Question 18

Operant conditioning.
Skinner’s research.

Answer 18

Operant conditioning
refers to learning processes whereby humans and animals operate on their environment.

Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences

Skinner’s research - rats and
refers to learning
pigeons, in specially designed
as an active process cages (Skinner boxes).

When a rat activated a lever (or
animals operate on a pigeon pecked a disc) it was
rewarded with a food pellet.

A desirable consequence led to
and maintained by its behaviour being repeated.

If pressing a lever meant an animal avoided an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated..

Question 19

Three types of consequences of behaviour.

Answer 19

Positive reinforcement - receiving a reward when behaviour is performed.

Negative reinforcement - avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed.

Punishment - an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated.
Punishment decreases it..

Question 20

Strength of behaviourism + CP (controlled / oversimplify)

Answer 20

• it uses well controlled research

the approach has focused on the careful measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings

behaviourists have broken behaviour down into stimulus response units and studied casual relationships

this suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility

CP
However this approach may oversimplify learning and ignore important influences of behaviour (e.g thought)z other approaches e.g social learning and cognitive incorporate mental processes
this suggests learning is more complex than just what we can observe.

Question 21

Strength of behaviourist approach (real world application)

Answer 21

• behaviourist laws of learning have real world application

the principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours and problems

token economy reward systems reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that are exchanged for privileges (operant conditioning). Successfully used in prisons and psychiatric wards

this increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.

Question 22

Limitation of behaviourist approach (ignored free will)

Answer 22

• behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism

the approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned and ignores any influence that free will may have on behaviour

skinner suggested that free will was an illusion. When something happens we may think ‘I have made the decision to do that’ but our past conditioning determined the outcome

this is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour (as suggested by the cognitive approach).

Question 23

Social learning theory - learning that occurs indirectly

Answer 23

Albert Bandura agreed with the behaviourist approach
that learning occurs through experience.
However, he also proposed that learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation of others behaviour..

Question 24

Learning related to consequences of behaviour - vicarious reinforcement

Answer 24

Children (and adults) observe other people’s behaviour
consequences of and take note of its consequences. Behaviour that is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) is more likely to be
copied = vicarious reinforcement..

Question 25

Mediational (cognitive) processes play a crucial role in learning.

Answer 25

There are four mediational processes in learning: Attention - whether behaviour is noticed. Retention - whether behaviour is remembered. Motor reproduction - being able to do it. Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour. The first two relate to the learning, the last two to the performance (so, unlike behaviourism, learning and bertormance do not have to occur together..

Question 26

Identification with role models is important.

Answer 26

People are more likely to imitate the behaviour of those with whom they identify. Such role models are similar to the observer, attractive and have high status..

Question 27

Bandura's research procedures:

Answer 27

Bandura et al 1961 Children watched either - An adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll - an adult behaving non aggressively towards a Bobo doll Bandura and walters 1963 children saw adult who was - rewarded - punished - there was no consequence.

Question 28

Findings and conclusions

Answer 28

Bandura et al 1961 when given their own doll to play with, the children who had seen aggression were much more aggressive towards the doll Bandura and walters 1963 when given their own doll, the children who saw the aggression rewarded were much more aggressive themselves the Bobo doll studies suggest that children are likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model it is also the case that modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded - vicarious reinforcement.

Question 29

Strength of SLT + CP (cognitive / mirror)

Answer 29

- it emphasises the importance of cognitive factors neither classical conditioning nor operant conditioning can offer a compressible account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors are omitted humans and animals store information about the behaviour id others and use this to make judgements about when it is approached to perform certain actions this shows that SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning and the behaviourist approach by recognising the role of mediation processes CP: Recent research suggests that observational learning is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain, which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people this suggests that SLT may make too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning.

Question 30

One limitation of SLT (too controlled)

Answer 30

- it relies too heavily on evidence from contrived lab studies many of banduras ideas weee developed though observation of children's behaviour in lab settings and this raises the problem of demand characteristics the main purpose of the doll is to hit it. So the children in those studies may have been behaving as they thought was expected thus the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Question 31

Another strength of SLT (real world application)

Answer 31

It has real world application social learning principles can account for how children learn form other people around them, as well as through the media and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted this has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours such as how children come to understand their gender role by imitating role models in the media this increases the value of SLT as it can account for real world behaviour.

Question 32

The cognitive approach - scientific study of mental processes

Answer 32

In direct contrast to the behaviourist approach, the cognitive approach argues that mental processes shout be studied, e.g, studying perception and memory..

Question 33

Role of Inference in the study of mental processes

Answer 33

Mental processes are 'private and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indiretly by making inferences (assumptions) about what is going on inside people's heads on the basis of their behaviour.

Question 34

The idea of schema is central to the cognitive approach

Answer 34

Schema are packages of information developed throuch experience They act as a 'mental framework' for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system. Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping. As we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated..

Question 35

Theoretical models to explain mental processes

Answer 35

The information processing approach suggests that information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model..

Question 36

Computer models to explain mental processes

Answer 36

Computer models refer to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind (e.g., conversational machines to deal with consumer enquiries) By running such a programme psychologists can test their ideas about information processing.

Question 37

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 37

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures (neuro) on mental processes (cognition). With advances in brain scanning technology in the last twenty years, scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing. This includes research in memory that has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex in the brain. Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders, e.g. the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD..

Question 38

Strength of the cognitive approach + CP (scientific / inference)

Answer 38

-it is uses scientific and objective methods cognitive psychologist have always employed controlled and rigorous methods of study e.g lab studies, in order to infer cognitive processes at work in addition the two friends of biology and cognitive psychology come together (cognitive neuroscience) to enhance the scientific basis of study this means that the study of the mind has established a credible scientific basis CP The use of interference means cognitive psychology can occasionally be too abstract and theoretical. Also, research often uses artificial stimuli such as word lists which may not represent everyday experience therefore, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity and not represent everyday experiences.

Question 39

Another strength of cognitive approach (application to everyday)

Answer 39

- application to everyday life the cognitive approach is dominant in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts for example AI and the development of robots, the treatment of depression and improving EWT this supports the value of the cognitive approach.

Question 40

One limitation of the cognitive approach (machine reductionism)

Answer 40

- it is based on machine reductionism although there are similarities between the operations of the human mind and computers e.g storage systems, the computer analogy has been criticised for instance, emotion and motivation has been shown to influence accuracy in recall eg in eyewitness accounts. These factors are not considered within the computer analogy this suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.

Question 41

The biological approach - everything psychological is at first biological

Answer 41

If we want to fully understand human behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes within the body, such as genes and neurochemistry..

Question 42

The mind and the body are one and the same

Answer 42

From a biological perspective, the mind lives in the brain - meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis. This is in contrast to the cognitive approach which sees the mind as separate from the brain..

Question 43

Neurochemical basis of behaviour.

Answer 43

Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain - neurotransmitters transmit messages. An imbalance of neurotransmitters may be a cause of some mental disorders, e.g. underproduction of serotonin in OCD..

Question 44

Genetic basis of behaviour.

Answer 44

Psychological characteristics (e.g. intelligence) are inherited. Twin studies are used to investigate genetic influences. Concordance rates between twins are calculated - the extent to which twins share the same characteristic. Higher concordance rates among identical (monozygotic, MZ) twins (genetically 100% the same) than non-identical (dizygotic, DZ) twins (about 50% the same is evidence of a genetic basis..

Question 45

The difference between genotype and phenotype.

Answer 45

A person's genotype is their actual genetic make-up. Phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. The expression of genotype (phenotype) is influenced by environmental factors. For example, phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder that can be prevented by a restricted diet. This suggests that much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture..

Question 46

Theory of evolution is used by the biological approach to explain behaviour

Answer 46

Darwin (1859) proposed the theory of natural selection • Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances behaviour. survival and reproduction will be passed on to future generations. • Such genes are described as adaptive and give the is not possible to show possessor and their offspring advantages. * For instance, attachment behaviours in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected.

Question 47

Strength of the biological approach + CP (real world application / drugs)

Answer 47

- it's real world application understanding of neurosurgical processes in the brain has led to the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders for example, drugs that treat clinical depression increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at the synapse and reduce depressive symptoms this means that people with depression are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life, rather than being confined to a hospital CP however, antidepressant drugs do not work for everyone. Cipriani et Al compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness this challenges the value of the biological approach as it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of depression.

Question 48

Strength of the biological approach (scientific)

Answer 48

- it uses scientific methods In order to investigate both genetic and neurochemical factors it makes use of a range of precise and objective methods E.g scanning techniques such as FMRI which asses biological processes in ways that are not open to bias this means the approach is based on objective and reliable data.

Question 49

Limitation of the biological approach (determinist - too biological)

Answer 49

- biological explanations are determinist biological explanations tend to be determinist in that they see human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control however, the way genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment. Not even genetically identical twins look exactly the same this suggests that the biological view is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment.

Question 50

The psychodynamic approach - unconscious mind has important influence of our behaviour

Answer 50

Sigmund Freud suggested the mind is made up of; Conscious - what we are aware of ('tip of the iceberg'). Preconscious - thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and 'slips of the tongue. Unconscious - a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour..

Question 51

Tripartite structure of personality dynamic interaction between the three parts

Answer 51

Freud saw personality as having three parts: personality. • Id - primitive part of the personality operates on the pleasure principle, demands instant gratification. present at birth • Ego - works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the ld and Supereg. develops at 2 Superego - internalised sense of right and wrong, based on morality principle. Punishes the Ego through guilt. Appears age 5. formed at the end of the phallic stage.

Question 52

Five psychosexual stages determine adult personality .

Answer 52

Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to move on to the next. Any conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes 'stuck' and carries behaviours associated with that stage through to adult life.

Question 53

Sequence of stages Is fixed:

Answer 53

Oral (0-1 years) - pleasure focus = mouth, the mother's breast is the object of desire. Anal (1-3 years) - pleasure focus = anus, the child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faces. Phallic (3-6 years) - pleasure focus = genital area. Latency - earlier conflicts are repressed. Genital (puberty) - sexual desires become conscious.

Question 54

Oedipus complex is a psychosexual conflict at the phallic stage

Answer 54

In the phallic stage, little boys develop incestous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father. Later boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values Girls of the same age experience penis envy..

Question 55

Defence mechanisms used by Ego to reduce anxiety

Answer 55

Unconscious strategies used by the Ego, for example. Repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind Denial - refusing to acknowledge reality. Displacement - transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target.

Question 56

Strength of the psychodynamic approach + CP (real world application / inappropriate for some)

Answer 56

- real world application, it introduced psychotherapy freuds psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically psychoanalysis claims to help clients deal with everyday problems by proving access to their unconscious, employing techniques such as dream analysis therefore psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern day talking therapies e.g counselling CP although psychoanalysis is claimed successful for clients with mild neuroses, it is inappropriate for more serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia therefore Freudian therapy and theory may not apply to mental disorders where a client has lost touch with reality.

Question 57

Another strength of psychodynamic approach (positive influence )

Answer 57

- its ability to explain human behaviour Freuds theory is controversial and often bizarre but it has had huge influence on western contemporary thought it has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena e.g the origins of psychological disorders and drew attention to the influence of childhood in adult personality this suggests that the psychodynamic approach has had positive influence on psychology and modern day thinking.

Question 58

Limitation of the psychodynamic approach (pseudoscience)

Answer 58

- its untestable concepts. Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification in the sense that it cannot be disproved E.g. id, Oedipus complex, defence mechanisms etc. all occur in the unconscious and so cannot be directly observed and measured. A lack of empirical evidence limits the approach's reliability and validity which in turn reduces psychology's status as a science..

Question 59

humanistic psychology - concept of free wiki is central

Answer 59

Humanistic psychologists see humans as affected by external and internal influences but self-determining (have free will) Psychology should concern itself with subjective experience rather than general laws as we are all unique - a person-centred approach.

Question 60

Hierarchy of needs has self-actualisation at the top

Answer 60

In Maslow's hierarchy of needs the four lower levels (deficiency needs such as food, water and safety) must be met before the individual (baby, child or adult) can work towards self-actualisation - a growth need. Self-actualisation refers to the innate tendency that each of us has to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can possibly be. order: physiological needs, safety and security, love and belongingness, self esteem, self actualisation.

Question 61

Focus on the self.

Answer 61

The self refers to the ideas and values that characterise 'I' and 'me' and includes perceptions of 'what I am' and 'what I can do'.

Question 62

Aim of therapy is to establish congruence

Answer 62

Rogers argued that personal growth requires an individual's concept of self to be congruent with their idea set (the person they want to be) If too big a gap, the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation isnt possible.

Question 63

Parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth

Answer 63

Issues such as worthlessness and low selt-esteem have roots in childhood and are due to a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents. A parent who sets boundaries on their love for their child (conditions of worth) by claiming I will only love you It... Is storing up psychological problems for that child in future.

Question 64

Humanistic approach has had a lasting influence on counselling psychology.

Answer 64

In Rogers' client-centred therapy (counselling) an effective therapist should provide the client with three things: - genuineness • Empathy. • Unconditional positive regard The aim is to increase feelings of self-worth and reduce incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self Rogers work transformed psychotherapy. 'Non-directive counselling techniques are practised, no only in clinical settings, but throughout education, health, social work and industry..

Question 65

Strength of humanistic approach + CP (anti reductionist / short in empirical)

Answer 65

- it is anti reductionist humanistic psychologists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components they advocate holism - the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (their past, future, relationships etc) this approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful behaviour within its real world context CP however, humanistic psychology, unlike behaviourism, has relatively few concepts that can be reduced to single variables and measured this means that humanistic psychology in general is short in empirical evidence to supports its claims.

Question 66

Another strength of humanistic psychology (positive)

Answer 66

- it's a positive one humanistic psychologists have been praised for promoting a positive image of the human condition - seeing people as in control of their lives and having the freedom to change Freud saw human beings as prisoners of their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between 'common unhappiness and absolute despair" Therefore humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative.

Question 67

Limitation of humanistic psychology (culture bias)

Answer 67

-the approach may be guilty of a cultural bias many humanistic ideas eg self actualisation would be more associated with individualist cultures such as the US collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasise the needs of the group, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology therefore it is possible that the approach does not apply university and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed.