Approaches Flashcards
Origins of psychology - Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Wundt is credited as being the father of modern psychology when in 1875 he created the first psychological laboratory in the University of Leipzig, Germany.
Wundt later founded the institute of Experimental Psychology with Gustev Fechner in 1879.
His approach led towards the acceptance of psychology as a science within its own right and away from philosophy, physiology and biology.
Wundt wished to study the structure of the human mind and believed this could be achieved by breaking down behaviours such as perception and sensation into their basic elements. Wundt and his students took cues from chemists and physicists and argued that if those people could break down all matter into simple elements or structures why couldn’t they do the same for the brain.
His approach was known as structuralism and the technique he used became known as introspection which is Latin for ‘looking into’.
Origins of psychology - Introspection
Wundt trained participants to become self-aware enough to observe and report back their inner mental processes and emotional states within experiments when subject to stimuli such as pictures or auditory tones and then described what they experienced.
Participants are shown an object for example and then asked to self-report on how they were perceiving it often on a scale. This information was then used to generate general theories about perception and mental processes and gain an insight into their workings.
Wundt initially believed all aspects of human behaviour could be investigated via experiments using introspection like this including memory and perception. Wundt later realised that learning, language and emotions could not be studied through laboratory experiments. This was in part due to such self-reports being found to be unreliable and difficult to replicate and ultimately subjectively down to the individual.
Origins of psychology - The emergence of psychology as a science
For psychology to be accepted as a science it had to adopt the scientific methods of other natural sciences such as chemistry and biology.
Psychology relies on empiricism, also known as the empirical method, which gathers knowledge from observation and experience. Empiricism is based on the assumption of determinism and that all behaviour has a cause and if this is the case it can also be predicted within different situations. This technique became known as the scientific method.
The scientific method uses investigative methods which are objective, systematic and replicable. Objectivity looks to insure researchers do not let their bias or preconceived ideas influence their collection and recording of data. Being systematic involves conducting experiments in an orderly way with measurements carried out accurately while considering possible influences to recording that may occur. Replicability is about reliability so that studies and observations can be replicated when conducted by other researchers to insure validity in their results.
The development of theories within psychology follow the scientific cycle of building, refining and falsifying on observations, developing theories and testing these again with objective, systematic and replicable observation.
Introspection evaluation
Introspection was found to be inaccurate. It relied upon responses which could not be observed nor was it possible to use it effectively to formulate theories on memory or perception. Introspection was also difficult to replicate between participants highlighting its unreliability when compared to behaviourist explanations such as classical and operant conditioning which could not be replicated.
Introspection was only suited for people who were able to show an ability to have self-awareness, so it was not appropriate in understanding all behaviour from people. In addition, it did not uncover unconscious attitudes or bias people may hold which influence behaviour and choices people make as they are unaware of them. For these reasons it was found to be inaccurate.
Scientific approach to Psychology - evaluation
As psychology relies on the same scientific methods as other natural sciences which includes the systematic, objective and replicability of research, it is seen as a credible science. Research can also be replicated and verified to test the reliability of findings and theories into human behaviour. As psychology sees all behaviour as deterministic, experiments can be generated to establish the cause and effect relationship through empirical and replicable research.
However, of all the natural sciences, psychology is the most inferential with direct cause and effect being the hardest to establish between data observations and theories which look to explain the findings. When compared to biology and chemistry, the results even between replicated studies vary greatly which weakens the case for psychology being a credible science.
Another weakness is that not all behaviours or workings of the mind can be explored or explained by psychological research and the scientific method. This means predicting behaviour becomes impossible as the scientific method itself may be inappropriate within psychology. As the scientific approach focuses on objectivity and control within observations, when used to explain human behaviour through controlled environments the situations may be contrived to natural settings. This would invariably tell us little about how people behave outside the laboratory settings and the findings may only be limited to the experiments themselves therefore lacking generalisability to real-life situations involving memory and perception.
Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach
A01
The behaviourist approach believes that human behaviour can be explained in terms of learning, which includes classical and operant conditioning.
In Pavlov’s experiment with dogs, he continually presented a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus), which caused the dog to salivate (unconditioned response). Eventually the dog, associated the sound of the bell and the food, so that sound of the bell (now a conditioned response) would cause the dog to salivate (conditioned response). Pavlov’s experiment demonstrates the learning of innate reflex behaviours in animals.
Operant conditioning explains the learning of voluntary behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour produces a consequence that it is rewarding, whereas negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour removes an unpleasant consequence. Both positive and negative reinforcement make a behaviour more likely to occur again.
Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach
A03
One strength of the behaviourist approach is its application to the treatment of phobias. Classical conditioning has led to the development of systematic desensitisation - a treatment which reduces the anxiety associated with phobias. This matters because systematic desensitisation is an effective treatment for a range of phobias and demonstrates the utility of the behaviourist approach, to help improve the lives of people with phobias.
Another strength of the behaviourist approach comes from research by Watson and Raynor. They demonstrated the process of classical conditioning in Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear white rats. They did this by striking a steel bar behind Little Albert’s head, every time Little Albert reached for the white rat (neutral stimulus). Eventually Little Albert formed an association so that the rat became a conditioned stimulus which produce a response of fear (conditioned response). This matters because it supports the idea that classical conditioning is involved in the learning of innate reflex behaviour - in this case phobias.
However, one criticism of the behaviourist approach is that it doesn’t take into account other factors, for example, cognitions. The behaviourist approach ignores the role of cognition (thinking) in the learning of behaviour and suggests that only behaviour which can be directly observed, should be measured. However, cognitive psychologists believe that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically. This matters because the behaviourist approach does not provide a complete explanation of human behaviour and ignore other factors (e.g. cognition) which may play an important role in some behaviours. Therefore the behaviourist approach is limited in its application to human behaviour.
Describe and evaluate the social learning approach
A01
Bandura’s social learning theory suggests learning occurs through not only direct experience and observing the consequences of one’s own behaviour but also through vicarious learning and the observation of other people’s actions (models) and the consequences they face, be they positive or negative. Models can be live models which carry out an attitude or behaviour and this may be a parent, teacher or peer group member or a symbolic model which may be someone from the media. These models provide examples of attitudes or behaviours which are observed and reproduced through a process known as imitation.
Imitation of a model is more likely if an observer is able to relate and identify with the model. Identification with the model is therefore a key determinant of imitation and this may be through the observer believing the model is similar enough to them that they would experience similar consequences themselves through the behaviour. Gender is one factor which research has found to make identification with the model easier (Schutts et al 2010) and thus make social learning more effective.
Social learning theory unlike behaviourism, factors internal cognitive process that occur prior to imitation and these are known as mediational processes. Behaviour is not instantly imitated and there are four mediational processes Bandura documented. These are Attention, Retention, Reproduction and Motivation. Behaviour must grab the attention of the individual, retention involves the behaviour being remembered or mental representations of the behaviours use while reproduction involves the observer believing they have the ability to reproduce the behaviour themselves. Lastly there must be motivation for the observer to use the behaviour in a given situation where they see the rewards of its use outweighing the potential costs.
Describe and evaluate the social learning approach
A03
One strength for SLT is that it can be considered to be a more holistic approach than behaviourism, for example, which only focuses on observable behaviours. SLT also includes cognitive processes (mediational processes) which has more face validity as thoughts proceeding behaviour is something people can generally relate to.
A weakness however is SLT can not explain all behaviour particularly when there appears to be no apparent role model for individuals to have learnt from. This weakness is more evident when imitation revolves around psychopathic behaviours or abnormal behaviours which are limited to just one individual within the family with no opportunity to learn from a model. Therefore SLT is an incomplete explanation for all behaviours and biological explanations may be better suited in some cases involving mental disorders.
Another issue that arises is ethical issues in SLT research. Children in Bandura’s research were exposed to aggressive behaviours with researchers knowing full well that they may learn this beyond the study which raises concerns. Testing such social learning on people now would be unethical but also difficult to establish the scientific credibility of this theory.
Describe and evaluate the cognitive approach
A01
The cognitive approach focuses on how people perceive, store, manipulate and interpret information through processes like memory and perception. The cognitive approach acknowledges that mental processes, like memory, cannot be studied directly, but must be studied by inferring what goes on as a result of a person’s behaviour.
Cognitive psychologists often develop models to help us understand and represent different cognitive processes. There are two types of models; theoretical models, for example, the multi-store model, which presents a pictorial representation of memory to explain what memory might look like as a mental process and how it might function.
Another cognitive theory is the idea of schemas. A schema is a cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information and play an important role in human behaviour.
Describe and evaluate the cognitive approach
A03
One strength of the cognitive approach is its application to the treatment of depression. The study of internal mental processes has increased our understanding of why people develop depression, through faulty mental (thinking) processes or negative schemas and has led to the development of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) - a treatment for depression. This matters because CBT is an effective treatment for depression and helps demonstrate the utility of the cognitive approach, to help improve the lives of people with depression.
Another strength of the cognitive approach comes from research by Boury et al. (2001). Boury et al. (2001) found that patients with depression were more likely to misinterpret information negatively (cognitive bias) and feel hopeless about their future (negative triad). This matters because it supports the idea that cognitions are involved in the development of certain behaviours/psychological conditions - in this case depression.
However, many studies into cognitive psychology tend to contrive of tasks that have very little to do with everyday behaviour in their natural settings. For example, studies tend to be in laboratory settings using methods to test memory that people would unlikely face such as random word lists or digits. This is unlike how memory is used in everyday life nor does it actually explain how people may forget memories. Due to this we are drawing conclusions into experiments that lack ecological validity and would lack external validity and generalisation to real life situations. Much of cognitive psychology could therefore be argued to lack ecological validity as it does not reflect real life behaviour.
However, the emergence of PET scans and FMRI has supported some elements of the cognitive approach and the use of models. For example, brain imaging has confirmed that STM and LTM are separate stores highlighting that the use of models to explain such areas of the brain ws distinctive from one another has validity.
Outline the biological approach
The biological approach attempts to explain all behaviour through biology, particularly focusing on genetics, neurochemistry, hormonal changes and how evolution may have shaped human behaviour.
The influence of genetics on behaviour
Genes carry instructions for the development of characteristics such as intelligence, temperament or height however their expression will be dependant on how genes interact with one another but also the influence of the environment. The way psychological characteristics such as behaviour are determined by either genes or the environment is known as the nature-nurture debate and the main focus on how genetics influence behaviour has looked at genotype and phenotype.
Genotype vs Phenotype
A genotype is the persons individual make-up which provides the genetic code for how the individual should develop and their characteristics. Every person has a unique genotype (except identical twins) within their cells. The phenotype of an individual is what actually happens to the individual once the genotype interacts with the environment. The expression of a phenotype is not always as the phenotype dictates and this occurs due to a number of reasons. A persons genotype may dictate a particular height for an individual however environmental influences such as poor nutrition may not provide the required nutrients to reach this. Therefore the phenotype is the height they actually become which may not be their genetic potential as the genotype dictates. The same is believed to occur for psychological characteristics such as behaviour; there may be a genetic- pre-disposition for certain behavioural traits however the environment may cause it to be inhibited.
The genetic basis for behaviour
The genetic basis for behaviour has focused on trying to identify exactly how much behaviour is influenced by genetics and genotype how much can be attributed to environmental influences and phenotype. Work to disentangle heritability and the variation of traits within apopulation that can be attributed to genetic differences has focused on identical and non-identical twins. If identical twins who share 100% of the same genetics show a higher likelihood of sharing behaviours or disorders when compared to non-identical twins then genetics and genotypes are believed to account for this. As both sets of twins likely share the same environments, genetics is assumed to be the only difference between both pairs of twins. Research findings vary but it is believed genetics can account for up to 80% for characteristics such as intelligence which would invariably affect behaviour.
