approaches Flashcards
1
Q
definition of psychology
A
the scientific study of the human mind and it’s functions, especially those functions affecting behaviours in a given context
2
Q
definition of science
A
a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. Aiming to discover general laws
3
Q
introspection
A
the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
4
Q
who was the first person to establish a psychology lab.
what was his aim?
A
Wundt
opened a psychological lab in germany in 1874
aim was to describe the nature of human consciousness (the mind) in a carefully controlled and scientific environment- a lab
5
Q
what was the method Wundt pioneered
A
introspection
first systematic experiment to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
6
Q
structuralism
A
isolating the structures of consciousness
e.g Wundt’s introspection
7
Q
what were the standardised procedures Wundt used?
A
the same standardised instructions were given to all participants.
so procedures could be replicated
e.g participants were given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts, images and sensations which were then recorded.
8
Q
what was the significance of Wundt’s work?
A
although his early attempt to study the mind would be seen today as naive
his wok was significant as it marked the separation of modern scientific psychology from its broader philosophical roots
9
Q
timeline for the emergence of psychology
A
1900s early behaviourists rejected introspection
1930s behaviourism
1950s cognitive approach
1990 biological approach
10
Q
1900s watson
A
behaviourists rejected introspection
watson argued that introspection was subjective
according to the behaviourist approach, scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured.
11
Q
1930s Skinner
A
behaviourist approach
Skinner brought the language and rigour of the natural sciences into psych
the behaviourists focused on learning and the use of carefully controlled lab studies
would dominate psych for the next few decades.
12
Q
1950s
A
cognitive approach
following the cognitive revolution the study of mental processes was seen as legitimate within psychology
although mental processes remain private cognitive psychology are able to make inferences about how these work on the basis of tests conducted in a controlled lab.
13
Q
1990s
A
biological approach introduced due to technological advances
biological psychology have taken advantage of recent advances in technology, including recording brain activity using scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG and advances in genetic research
14
Q
evaluation of Wundt and introspeciton
A
- some aspects of method would be classified as scientific. e.g he recorded the introspection within a controlled lab environment he standardised his procedures.
forerunner to the latter scientific approaches in psych - other aspects unscientific: relied on participants self reporting mental processes. such data is subjective, untruthful and they may not have the same thoughts every time so establishing general principles is impossible.
15
Q
evaluation of emergence of psychology as a science
A
- claim to be scientific. some aims of the natural science to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. so approaches rely on scientific method
- not all approaches use objective methods. humanistic approach is anti-scientific does not attempt to form any general laws. psycho-dynamic use of case study open to bio not representative. scientific approach to study of human experience not possible nor desirable difference between subject matter.
16
Q
what does the behaviourist approach concerned with studying?
A
behaviourist approach is only concerned with studying behaviour that can be observed and measured.
it is not concerned with mental processes of the mind
17
Q
what can the assumptions of behaviourism apply to
A
behaviourists suggest the processes that govern learning are the same in all species.
so animals can replace humans as experimental subject.
18
Q
classical conditioning
and Pavlov’s research
A
conditioning dogs to salivate when a bell rings
UCS (food) —> UCR (salivation)
NS (bell) —-> no response
NS (bell) + UCS (food)
CS (bell) —> CR (salivation)
pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus (bells) can elicit a new learned response (CR) through association
19
Q
operant conditioning
A
learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment
behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
20
Q
Skinner’s research
A
operant conditioning
rats and pigeons in specially designed cages (Skinner boxes)
when a rat activated a lever it was rewarded with a food pellet
a desirable consequence led to behaviour being repeated
if pressing a lever meant an animal avoided an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated
21
Q
3 types of consequences in operant conditioning
A
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
punishment (negative and positive)
22
Q
positive reinforcement
A
increases the likelihood of a response occurring because it involves a reward for the behaviour
23
Q
negative reinforcement
A
increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
when an animal / human produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant
24
Q
punishment
negative and positive
A
an unpleasant consequence to behaviour reducing likeliness of behaviour being repeated.
+ve punishment: consequence receiving something unpleasant which decreases probability of the behaviour being repeated
-ve punishment: removing something desirable decreasing probability behaviour being repeated.
25
evaluation of the behaviourist approach
| strengths
+ gave psych scientific credibility: focused on carefully measurements observable behaviour in lab, importance of scientific process objectivity and replication, language and method of natural science to psych increasing credibility and status
+ real life applications: principles of conditioning applied to a broad range of behaviours and problems. Token economies. suitable treatment for patients who lack insight and not capable of talking about problems.
26
evaluation of behaviour approach
| limitations
- mechanistic views: animals seen as passive machines as responds to environment with little choice or insight. importance of mental events has a more active role in learning.
- environmental determinism. All behaviours determined by past experience. ignores free will as an illusion. Past conditioning history determines outcome.
- ethical and practical issues of animal research: although maintain high degree of control exposed to stressful and adverse conditions affect how they reacted reducing validity behaviour not normal.
27
social learning theory
proposed by Bandura who extended the behaviourist approach idea that learning occurs through experience
proposed that learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation of other's behaviour
28
vicarious reinforcement
SLT
children (and adults) observe other peoples behaviour and take not of its consequences
behaviour that is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) is much more likely to be copied than behaviour that is punished
29
what are the 4 meditatonal (cognitive) processes that play a crucial role in learning
SLT
1. Attention - whether behaviour is noticed
2. Retention- whether behaviour is remembered
3. motor reproduction - being able to do it
4. motivation - the will to perform behaviour
1&2 relate to learning behaviour
3&4 relate to performance of behaviour
learning and performance do not have to occur together.
30
identification with role model
SLT
children are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify
such role models are similar to the observer they tend to be attractive and have high status
31
Bandura's research 1
| imitation
SLT
imitation of aggression
children watched either:
- an adult behaving agg towards a bobo doll
- an adult behaving non-agg towards a bobo doll
when given their own bobo doll to play with, the kids who had seen agg were much more agg towards the doll
32
Bandura's research 2
| vicarious reinforcement
```
SLT
imitation of aggressoon
children saw adult who was:
- rewarded
- punished
- no consequences
when given their own bobo doll, the children who saw aggressive behaviour rewarded were much more aggressive themselves.
```
33
conclusions from Bandura's research
children model aggressive behaviour
the bobo doll studies suggest that children are likely to imitate (model) acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model
it is also the case that modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (vicarious reinforcement)
34
evaluation of social learning theory
| strengths
- importance of cognitive factors: Behaviourism is not comprehensive because cognitive factors are emitted. storing info about behaviours to make judgements on when appropriate to perform. SLT is a more comprehensive explanation as it includes metitational processes.
- account for cultural differences: explains how children learn from individuals and media and how norms are transmitted. useful in understanding behaviour
- SLT less deterministic: emphasis reciprocal determinism we have influence on environment through behaviours we chose to perform. Free will. more realistic and flexible
35
evaluation of social learning theory
| Limitations
- over reliance on evidence from lab studies: Bandura watching kids in lab. contrived nature procedure produced demand characteristics as the purpose of the bobo doll is to hit it so kids behaving how they thought was expected of them. Can't be applied to everyday life.
- underestimates biological factors influence: Bandura little reference to biological factors boys are more aggressive regardless of situation because more testosterone. these factors have important influence and is not accounted for in SLT.
36
cognitive approach
in direct contrast to the behavioural approach
focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour
looking at internal mental processes, schema and interference making use of cognitive neuroscience
37
role of interference in the cognitive approach
mental processes are private and cannot be observed.
so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences (assumptions) about what is going on inside people's heads on the basis of their behaviour.
38
theoretical models
e.g
information processing approached suggests that info flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in multi store model
theoretical models used by cognitive approach when describing and explaining mental processes
39
computer models
cognitive used to describe and explain mental processes
computer analogy suggested similarities in how computers and humans process information
e.g the use of a central processor (the brain) changing of information into a usable code and the use of stores to hold information
40
what are schemas
a schema are packages of information developed through experience
they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system
babies are born with simple motor schemas for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping
as we get older, our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated.
41
cognitive neuroscience
scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
with advances in brain scanning technology in the last 20 years, scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing
this includes research in memory that has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex
scanning techniques have also provided useful in establishing neurological basis of disorders.
42
evaluation of the cognitive approach
| strengths
- scientific and objective methods. employed highly controlled and rigorous methods lab experiments, to produce reliable, objective data. credible scientific basis.
- application to everyday life. applied to wide range of piratical and theoretical contexts contributions to AI and robots leading to exciting tech advances
- less deterministic. soft determinism recognise cognitive systems can only operate within certain limits but that we are free to think. more reasonable and flexible middle ground to free will. determinism debate
43
evaluation of the cognitive approach
| limitations
- machine reductionist: some similarities machine reductionism ignores influence of emotion and motivation on cognitive system and put ability to process info memory affected by emotional anxiety in eyewitness
- lacks external validity. only able to infer mental processes from behaviours they observe too abstract and theoretical. artificial stimuli like word lists not represent every day experience
44
what are the key assumptions and features of the psychodynamic approach
the unconscious mind has an important influence on behaviour
tripartite structure of personality
5 psychosexual stages determine adult personality. these stages are fixed
defence mechanisms used by ego to keep ID in check and reduce anxiety.
45
what did the psychodynamic approach suggest the mind is made up of
- conscious. what we are aware of
- pre-conscious. thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and slips of the tongue
- unconscious. a vast store of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour
46
the tripartite structure of personality
1. ID. primitive part of personality operates on the pleasure principle, demands instant gratification
2. Ego. works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the ID and superego
3. Superego. internalised sense of right and wrong based on morality principle. punishes the ego through guilt
dynamic interactions between the 3 parts determines behaviour
47
the 5 psychosexual stages
| explanation
determines adult personality
each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to move on to the next
any conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes stuck and carries behaviours associated with the stage through to adult life.
the sequence of stages is fixed.
48
what are the 5 psychosexual stages
1. Oral. (0-1) pleasure focused on mouth, the mother's breast is the object of desire
2. Anal (1-3) pleasure focused on the anus, the child gains pleasure from with holding and eliminating faeces
3. Phallic (3-5) pleasure focused on genital area.
4. Latency. earlier conflicts are repressed
5. genital (puberty) - sexual desires become conscious.
49
the oedipus complex
occurs in the phallic stage. boys
little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father out of fear and jealously
castration anxiety
resolution of problem by repressing feelings for mum and identifying with dad, taking on his gender role and moral values.
50
defence mechanisms used by ego
unconscious strategies used by ego to keep ID in check and reduce anxiety
1. repression. forcing a distressing memory out of the unconscious mind
2. Denial. refusing to acknowledge reality
3. displacement. transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target.
51
evaluation of the psychodynamic approach strengths
- explanatory power. although controversial and bizarre had a huge influence used to explain a wide range of behaviours drew attention to the influence of childhood on adult personality. dominant approach for the first half of the 20th century
- piratical application: psychoanalysis therapy designed to asses unconscious mind using hypnosis suitable for mild disorders but inappropriate for more severe. forerunner to many modern day psychotherapies and talking therapies.
52
evaluation of the psychodynamic approach
| limitations
- case studies. ideas based on case studies not possible to make universal claims on human nature based on this. interpretation is highly subjective. lack scientific rigour
- un-falsifiable. cannot be proved or disproved as they occur on unconscious level. status of pseudoscience
- psychic determinism: behaviour determined by unconscious conflicts in childhood. Slip of tongues driven by unconscious forces with deep symbolic meaning. extreme determinism free will has no influence.
53
key assumptions / features of the humanistic approach
- free will
- Maslow hierarchy of needs
- focus on self
- aims of therapy is to establish congruence between self concept and the ideal self
- parents who impose condition of worth prevent personal growth
- key in counselling psychology.
- anti scientific
54
humanist approach
humanistic psychologists reject attempts to establish scientific principles of human behaviour
we are all unique and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws
person centred approach.
55
what is at the top of Maslow's hierarchy of needs
self actualisation
refers to the innate tendency that each of us has to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can possible be.
the 4 lower levels must be met before the individual can work towards self actualisation - a growth need
56
what does the humanistic approach focus on?
focus on self
self referring to the ideas and values that characterise I and me and includes perception of 'what I am' and 'what I can do'
57
what is the aim of humanist therapy
to establish congruence between the self concept and the ideal self
Roges argued that personal growth requires an individual concept of self to be congruent with their ideal self.
if too big of a gap, the person will experience a state of in-congruence and self actualisation is not possible.
58
humanistic approach
| where is worthlessness and low self esteem rooted in / caused
rooted in childhood due to a lack of unconditional positive regard from parents.
conditions of worth: a parent who sets boundaries on their love for their child by claiming ' I will only love you if ...'
is setting up psychological problems for that child in the future.
59
Humanist approach effect on counselling psychology
Rogers client centred therapy suggested an effective therapist should provide:
- genuineness
- empathy
- unconditional positive regard
the aim is to increase feelings of self worth and reduce in congruence between the self concept and the ideal self
transformed psychotherapy. non directive counselling techniques are practised not only in clinical settings but throughout education, health, social work and industry.
60
evaluation of humanistic approach
| strengths
- non reductionist. rejects attempts to break down behaviours into smaller components. advocates holism. has more validity by considering behaviour within real life context
- positive approach. praised for bringing the person back to psych promoting positive image of human condition . refreshing and optimistic alternative by seeing all people as basically good, free to work towards achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.
61
evaluation of humanistic approach
| limitations
- limited application. little impact within the disciple as a whole. may be due to lack of sound evidence- base approach describes as a lose set of concepts and not comprehensive.
- unstable concepts. vague ideas that are abstract un-falsifiable self actualisation and congruence. anti scientific and is short on empirical evidence to support its claims.
- cultural bias. ideas of individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth associated with an individualist culture. collective community, interdependence and needs of the group valued in a collectivist culture ignored.
62
what are the key assumptions / features of the biological approach
everything psychological is at first biological
behaviour has a genetic and neurological basis
the mind and body are one and the same `
63
biological approach
if we want to fully understand human behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes within the body such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system.
64
biological approach believes feelings and behaviours have a _______ basis
from a biological perspective, the mind lives in the brain meaning that all thoughts and feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis.
in contrast to the cognitive approach
65
twin studies define
concordance rate
MZ twins
DZ twins
concordance rates - the extent to which twins share the same characteristics
MZ - monozygotic identical twins
DZ - dizygotic non identical twins
higher concordance rates among MZ twins than DZ twins suggest genetic basis.
66
theory of evolution
Charles Darwin
any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survial and reproduction will be passed on to future generations
such genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring advantages
e.g attachment behaviour in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected.
67
eclecticism
the multidisciplinary approach to study behaviour
| combines several approaches/ methods to provide a more comprehensive account.
68
diathesis- stress model
mental disorders are complex interaction of genetic predisposition and environmental triggers
69
evaluation of the biological approach
| strengths
- approach uses scientific methods. use a range of precise and highly scientific methods. scanning techniques and drug trials. accurately measure biological neural processes not open to basis. based on reliable data
- real life application. increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development pf psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders. not effective for all patients. revolutionised. suffers are able to live a relatively normal life
70
evaluation of the biological approach
| limitations
- establishing cause and effect with neurotransmitters. role of them in mental illness come from studies show particular drugs reduce symptoms so it is assumed that the neurotransmitter is the cause. limitation because only a association exists
- deterministic. sees human behaviour as governed by internal biological causes of which we have no control. this is at offs with legal system. such research may have negative implications for wider society giving excuse
- nature v nurture. identical twins, non identical twins and members of the same family all have genetic similarities because they are genetically similar. however the fact that family members are exposed to similar environmental conditions is an important confounding variable.
71
behaviourist and social learning theory views on development
the process that underpins learning are continuous occurring at any age
72
cognitive views on development
stage theories of child development particularly the idea of concept formation (schema) as child gets older
73
biological views on development
genetically determined maturational changes influence behaviour
e.g cognitive / intellectual development
74
psychodynamic views on development
the most coherent theory of development, tying concepts and processes to age related stages
75
humanistic views on development
the development of the self is ongoing throughout life
76
behaviourists and social learning theory view for nature nurture
hard nurture stance
babies are blank slates at birth.
all behaviours comes about through learning associations and reinforcements
social learning adds processes of observation and imitation
77
cognitive stance on nature v nurture
middle ground
| recognises that many of our info processing abilities are innate but are constantly refined by experience
78
biological stance on nature v nurture
hard nature
anatomy is destiny
behaviour stems from our inherited genetic blueprint
79
psychodynamic stance on nature v nurture
middle ground
suggests that much of our behaviour is driven by biological drives and instincts
but also sees the child's relationships with its parents as crucial
80
humanistic stance on nature v nurture
more nurture based
| regards parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the person's concept of self
81
how reductionist is behaviourism
hard reductionism
| reduces complex learning into stimulus response units for ease of testing in controlled lab environments
82
how reductionist is social learning theory
softer than behaviourism
| recognises how cognitive factors interact with the external environment
83
what type of reductionism does cognitive approach use
machine reductionisms
| use of the computer analogy and the fact that it ignores human emotion
84
what type of reductionism does the biological approach use
biological reductionisms
reduces and explains human behaviour at the level of the gene or neuron
extremely reductionist
85
how reductionist is the psychodynamic approach
reduces behaviour to the influence of biological drives and instincts
however also sees personality as a dynamic, hollistic interaction
86
how reductionist is humanistic
anti- reductionist
| based on holistic investigation of all aspects of the individuals
87
how deterministic is behaviourist approach
extreme determinism
| all behaviour is environmentally determined by external forces that we cannot control
88
what type of determinism does social learning theory use
reciprocal determinism
| we are influenced by our environment and also exert some influence upon it
89
type of determinism in cognitive approach
soft determinism
| suggests we are the choosers of our own behaviour but only within the limits of what we know
90
determinism - humanistic
non-deterministic
| human beings have free will and are active agent s who determine their own development
91
biological approach - determinism
genetic determinism
| behaviour is directed by innate influence of our genetics
92
psychodynamic - determinism
psychic determinism
| unconscious forces drive our behaviour and these are rationalised by our conscious mind.
93
reductionist
refers to a theory that seems to oversimplify human behaviour or cognitive processes and in the process neglects to explain the complexities of the mind
ignores factors that may be contributing to the subject being theorised
94
determinism
is the view that free will is an illusion and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control.
95
behaviourist
| explanation and treatment of abnormal / atypical behaviour
abnormality arises from maladaptive or faulty learning
| behavioural therapies take a symptom based approach to the unlearning of behaviour.
96
social learning theory
| explanation and treatment of abnormal / atypical behaviour
principles such as modelling has been used to explain the development of aggressive behaviour
97
cognitive
| explanation and treatment of abnormal / atypical behaviour
led to cognitive therapies such as CBT in the treatment of depression, which aims to eradicate faulty thinking
98
biological
| explanation and treatment of abnormal / atypical behaviour
psychoactive drugs that regulate chemicals imbalances in the brain have revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders.
99
psychodynamic
| explanation and treatment of abnormal / atypical behaviour
anxiety disorders emerge from unconscious conflicts and overuse of defence mechanisms. psychoanalysis aims to put people in touch with their unconscious thoughts.
100
humanistic
| explanation and treatment of abnormal / atypical behaviour
humanistic therapy or counselling is based on the idea that reducing in congruence will stimulate personal growth
101
what 5 things should you compare approaches on
- views on development
- nature v nurture
- reductionism
- determinism
- explanation and treatment of abnormal / atypical behaviour.
