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AQA A-level Psychology > Approaches - done > Flashcards

Approaches - done Flashcards

1
Q

What happened in 1879?

A

Wundt opens the first psychology lab

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2
Q

When did the behaviourist approach emerge?

A

1913 to 1920s

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3
Q

Who was the behaviorist approach established by?

A

The likes of Watson and Skinner

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4
Q

When was the cognitive approach established?

A

1960s

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5
Q

What did cognitive neuroscience merge?

A

Cognitive and biological approach

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6
Q

When did cognitive neuroscience become a distinct discipline?

A

21st century

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7
Q

What was the dominant approach in the 1980s?

A

Biological

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8
Q

When was humanistic psycology developed?

A

1950s

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9
Q

Who developed the humanistic approach?

A

Maslow

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10
Q

When did psychodynamic’s emerge?

A

Late 1800s to early 1900s

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11
Q

What happened in the 17th to 19th century?

A

Psychology begins a branch of philosophy called experimental philosophy

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12
Q

What is science?

A
  • It uses research to draw conclusions
  • Differs from philosophy which only uses reason
  • It is the approach of studying the world through observation and empiricism
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13
Q

What does control mean?

A

Tests involve holding variables constant in order to establish cause and effect

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14
Q

What is objectivity?

A

Researchers are unbiased and not influences by their personal feelings and experiences

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15
Q

What does predictability mean?

A

The aim is to be able to predict future behaviour from research findings

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16
Q

What does falsifiability mean?

A
  • Hypotheses based on theory are tested to see if they are true or false
  • Findings that contradict hypotheses are used to develop new theories.
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17
Q

What does replication mean?

A

Findings should be repeated when tested on different occasions

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18
Q

Who is the first psychologist?

A

Wilhem Wundt

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19
Q

What did Wunt want from psychology?

A

He wanted it to be accepted as a distinct science in its own right and attempted to separate psychological theory from earlier philosophical ideas

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20
Q

What was Wundts aim in his research?

A
  • His aim was to investigate human consciousness
  • He believed the best way to do this was breaking down a person’s observations of objects, images and events into separate parts.
  • This became known as structurism
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21
Q

What kind of method did Wundt use to find the basic structures of thought?

A

Scientific methods

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22
Q

What does introspection mean?

A
  • ‘Looking into’
  • It is a process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states.
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23
Q

What is the method of introspection?

A
  • Participants were presented with a controlled stimuli. This was typically a moving image or sound such as a ticking metronome.
  • The participant were then asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing - such as thoughts, feelings and emotions - whilst still looking or listening to the stimuli.
  • Wundt attempted to record and compare peoples responses to specific stimuli
  • The stimuli, surroundings and instructions was standardised.
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24
Q

What are the strengths of Wundt’s work?

A
  • He did his research in carefully controlled conditions. This encouraged other psychologists to be more scientific.
  • His work had a big impact on later approaches in psychology. For example the cognitive approach focuses on the study of internal mental processes, which originated in Wundt’s work
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25
Q

What are the weaknesses of Wundt’s work?

A
  • Some believed introspection wasn’t scientific or reliable because we can’t study inner processes
  • It cannot be used on children or animals to understand their behaviour due to their lack of vocabulary
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26
Q

What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

A
  • All behaviour is learnt as babies and we are all born as ‘blank slates’
  • We learn through a stimulus - response relationship to our behaviour.
  • Behaviour should be studied scientifically
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27
Q

What is the key information about John Watson?

A
  • He established the psychological school of behaviourism in the 1920s
  • Watson conducted research on animal behaviour, child rearing and advertising.
  • Conducted the Little Albert experiment
    Denied the existence of the mind and consciousness
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28
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

learning through association.

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29
Q

Who did the first experiment on classical conditioning?

A
  • Ivan Pavlov
  • He did his research on dogs
  • He made a dog saliva when a bell is rang like a dog automatically salivating at food
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30
Q

What is the process of classical conditioning?

A

Before conditioning:
Neutral stimulus = No response
Unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response

During Conditioning:

UCS + NS = UCR

After conditioning:

Conditioned stimulus = conditioned response

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31
Q

What are the other 4 features of classical conditioning?

A

Generalisation: The tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus to give the same response.

Discrimination: Having a response to some stimuli but not others.

Extinction: When the conditioned stimulus no longer gives the conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery: The sudden reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of apparent exticntion.

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32
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

Learning through past consequences

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33
Q

What does reinforcement mean in operant conditioning?

A

Consequences given which means the behaviour is likely to be repeated

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34
Q

What does punishment mean in operant conditioning?

A

Consequences given which means the behaviour is less likely to be repeated.

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35
Q

What are the 4 features of operant conditioning?

A

Positive reinforcement: Providing something pleasant which results in the behaviour being repeated.

Negative reinforcement: Taking away something unpleasant which results in the behaviour being repeated.

Positive punishment: Providing something unpleasant which results in the behaviour being decreased

Negative punishment: Taking away something pleasant which results in the behaviour being decreased.

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36
Q

What was Skinner’s research?

A
  • He developed the theory of operant conditioning
  • He designed a cage called a skinner box to investigate the process in rats
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37
Q

What was method of positive reinforcement experiment in rats (Skinner)?

A
  • The rat moved around the Skinner box
    -When it accidentally presses the lever, food is delivered into the cage.
  • It is positive reinforcement due the rat increasing the behaviour.
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38
Q

What was the method of negative reinforcement in rats (Skinner)?

A
  • The rat is subjected to a unpleasant stimulus of an electric shock
  • If the rat presses the lever, it switches of the current
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39
Q

What is a strength of the behaviourist approach?

A
  • Has practical applications to the real world. E.g. It can be used to treat phobias
  • The approach relies heavily on laboratory experiments
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40
Q

What is a weakness of the behaviourist approach?

A
  • Mostly based on animal research
  • Provides a deterministic approach
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41
Q

What are the key assumptions of social learning theory?

A
  • We learn by observing and imitating others in social contexts.
  • Learning occurs as a result of indirect experiences, we do not need to be directly reinforced for behaviours.
  • Considers the important meditational processes that occur between stimulus and response.
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42
Q

Who proposed SLT?

A

Bandura

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43
Q

What does SLT propose?

A

All behaviours that are observed will be learnt but we won’t necessarily imitate them all.

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44
Q

What factor is involved in learning in SLT?

A

Cognitive

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45
Q

What are the four meditational factors in SLT?

A

Attention: A person must be focused on the model/task they are observing.

Retention: We must be able to remember information in order to imitate in our long term memory.

Replication: The ability to perform a behaviour we have seen a model demonstrate. We are not able to copy all behaviours.

Motivation: The desire to copy the behaviour. This will be influenced by rewards/punishment that follows the models behaviour.

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46
Q

What are the two types of models in SLT?

A

Live models: Real life people
Symbolic models: Fictional characters

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47
Q

When is imitation most likely to occur, according to SLT?

A
  • If they are perceived positively
  • If we share the same characteristics as the model.
  • If they are rewarded.
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48
Q

What is identification in SLT?

A
  • Feeling that a model is similar to us in some way
  • Research suggests we are more likely to imitate same sex models compared to opposite sex models
  • with the model suggests we are likely to experience the same reinforcement/consequences as the model
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49
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A
  • When we see a model be reinforced for their behaviour, it either increases or decreases the likelihood of us imitating the same behaviour.
  • When a individual receives vicarious reinforcement, this provides feedback on the consequences of the behaviour and they judge for themselves the likelihood of experiencing the same outcomes if they imitate the behaviour.
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50
Q

What was the aim of the Bobo doll study?

A

To investigate wether children would learn new behaviours when subjected to a model.

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51
Q

What was the procedure of the Bobo doll study?

A
  • One condition saw the adult being an aggressive model to the children
  • A second condition saw the children being subjected to a ‘nice’ model
  • A third control condition involved the children not being subjected to any model.
  • All participants were placed in each room with similar toys and the researchers observed their behaviour.
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52
Q

What was the result of the Bobo doll study?

A
  • There was a difference in the behaviour shown by the subjects
  • When shown a aggressive model the child showed aggressive behaviour
  • The most aggression was showered by boys who had been exposed to a male aggressive model
  • Same sex gave the highest imitation
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53
Q

How many participants were there in the Bobo doll study?

A

36 boys and 36 girls

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54
Q

What was the conclusion of the Bobo doll study?

A

We can be strongly influenced by other peoples behaviour

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55
Q

What are the strengths of SLT?

A
  • Has applications in the real world. E.g. It has been used to explain criminal behaviour and aggression
  • It is based on scientific evidence (lab experiments)
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56
Q

What are the weaknesses of SLT?

A
  • The experimental evidence that supports SLT can be criticised for its methodology
  • It can be criticised for adopting a nurture position when explaining human behaviour (ignores nature)
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57
Q

What are the key assumptions of the cognitive approach?

A
  • Cognitive psychologists focus on internal mental processes.
  • They assume that the mind is similar to a computer in terms of them both having inputs, processes and outputs.
  • They believe processes can be studied indirectly by observing behaviour and making inferences about what is happening in the mind
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58
Q

What does cognition mean?

A

It is the mental action or processes of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses.

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59
Q

What are the 5 mental processes according to the cognitive approach?

A
  • Language
  • Attention
  • Thinking
  • Memory
  • Perception
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60
Q

What is a schema?

A
  • A mental framework about a concept
  • We are all born with basic schema’s, but they become more sophisticated over time
  • Based on personal experience - indirect or direct
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61
Q

Why are Schema’s useful?

A
  • They provide a mental shortcut
  • Help to interpret information quickly and effectively
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62
Q

Why are Schema’s not useful?

A
  • Reliance on Schema’s can lead to perceptual errors and distortion of infomation
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63
Q

What was the aim of the early study in 1947 by Allport and Postman?

A

The aim was to study the ways schema’s distort memory

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64
Q

What was the procedure of the early study by Allport and Postman?

A
  • They showed an image to participants to study briefly
  • Participants then had to read details of the picture
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65
Q

What was the results of the early study by Allport and Postman?

A

Most participants reported incorrectly that It was the black man in the photo who held the razor

66
Q

What was the conclusion of the early study by Allport and Postman

A

The participants relied on their schema’s which at the time often contains associations between black people and criminality

67
Q

What are computer models in the cognitive approach?

A

Software simulations of internal mental processes that have been created with computer scientists to help us study and understand the processes

68
Q

What are theoretical models in the cognitive approach?

A
  • A representation of how information processing works.
  • They are usually represented in picture/diagram form with boxes to represent structures and arrows to represent sequences.
69
Q

What are inferences and why do they have to be used in the cognitive approach?

A
  • Observing behaviour and using logic to draw a conclusion about what mental processes caused that behaviour
  • It is used in the cognitive approach as the internal mental processes cannot be seen or studied directly.
70
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A
  • A branch of psychology that combines the cognitive and biological approach
  • Emerged in late 20th century when brain scanning techniques were developed
71
Q

What does cognitive neuroscience study?

A
  • Biological processes that underline mental/cognitive processes
  • Specific focus is on neural actions in the brain which are involved in mental processes
72
Q

What does cognitive neuroscience use?

A
  • It uses neuro-imaging techniques
  • These include PET and fMRI scans
73
Q

What do neuro-imaging techniques provide?

A
  • They provide an active image of the living brain
  • They reveal what parts of the brain are being used while an individual is doing certain tasks
74
Q

What is the role of the parietal lobe?

A
  • Sensory perception
  • Such as management of touch, sense smell etc
75
Q

What is the role of the frontal lobe?

A

Voluntary movement

76
Q

What is the role of the occipital lobe?

A

Visual processing center

77
Q

What is the role of the temporal lobe?

A

Processing auditory infomation

78
Q

What is the role of the cerebellum?

A
  • Coordinates a wide range of functions in the brain and body
79
Q

What parts of the brain is used in long term memory?

A
  • Frontal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Cerebellum
80
Q

How is the frontal lobe used in long term memory?

A
  • It is used when using episodic memory
    -This is recalling personal facts and experiences
81
Q

How is the temporal lobe used in long term memory?

A
  • When using semantic memory
  • This is facts and common knowledge
82
Q

How is the cerebellum used in long term memory?

A
  • When using procedural memory
  • This is how to do things like motor skills
83
Q

What is a strength of the cognitive approach?

A
  • Practical applications to the real world. E.g. CBT
  • Based on scientific evidence (brain scans etc)
84
Q

What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?

A
  • Experimental methods can be criticised for its methodology (lack of external validity)
  • Considered reductionist
85
Q

What are the key assumptions of the biological approach?

A
  • They believe that to fully understand human behaviour we must look at physical structures in the body
  • They believed our behaviour is largely inherited and so focuses on studying the influence of genes
  • They believe all behaviour is due to nature
  • They study the role of chemical changes in the nervous systems and the role of hormonal changes
86
Q

What is the largest area of the brain?

A

Cerebrum

87
Q

How many hemispheres does the cerebral cortex have?

A

2

88
Q

How many lobes does each hemisphere of the brain have?

A

4 lobes

89
Q

What was the case of Phineas Gage?

A
  • His injury happened in 1848
  • He was using explosives on the railroad. When packing the explosives, they went off early firing the packing rod through his head
  • Only took 10 weeks to heal
    -His personality changed
  • When body was exhumed in 2012, the damage was to his frontal lobe
90
Q

What are Genes?

A

Carry the code that determines a certain characteristic, both physical and psychological.

91
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The inherited, unique genetic makeup of an individual, fixed at conception

92
Q

What is an phenotype?

A
  • The observable representation of a persons genotype
  • Determined by genes and the environment
93
Q

What gene puts a person at a greater risk of being a psychopath?

A

MAOA or ‘warrior’ gene

94
Q

How can a person with the MAOA gene prevent becoming a psychopath?

A

Having a nurturing and loving environment/childhood

95
Q

What is heritability ?

A

The extent to which a behaviour or characteristics can be attributed to genetics

96
Q

What symptoms may a schizophrenic have?

A
  • Hallucinations
  • Delusions
97
Q

How much of the general population suffer from schizophrenia?

A

1%

98
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals that transmit electrical messages from one nerve cell in the brain to another

99
Q

What neurotransmitter has schizophrenia been associated with?

A

Over activity of dopamine

100
Q

What neurotransmitter has depression being associated with?

A

Under activity of serotonin

101
Q

What do evolutionary psychologists presume?

A

All human behaviour is influenced by physical and psychological predispositions that helped humans survive and reproduce in the past

102
Q

What is evolution?

A

The processes of, over time, organisms changing to adapt to their environment

103
Q

In a given environment how does a new genotype emerge?

A
  • Genetic mutation
  • Genes combining when two organisms mate
104
Q

How does evolution benefit organisms?

A
  • Enables it to deal with a threat
  • Exploit its environments resources
  • Increases reproductive success
105
Q

What is natural selection?

A

A genotype becoming more widespread throughout the population

106
Q

What does natural selection explain?

A

Evolution

107
Q

What may happen if there is a change in the environment?

A

A selected genotype may become maladaptive and the species may become extinct

108
Q

What was David Buss’ study?

A
  • He studied different cultures
  • He found similarities in the qualities that people desired most in an romantic partner
  • Across all cultures, there was a universal sex difference
109
Q

What was the universal sex difference in David Buss’ study?

A
  • Women desire men with resources, e.g. money and shelter
  • Men desire woman who are young and attractive
  • This ensures chances of survival in offspring
110
Q

What are the strengths of the biological approach?

A
  • Has practical applications (SSRIs)
  • Uses scientific methods (objective)
111
Q

What are the weaknesses of the biological approach?

A
  • Can be seen as reductionist
  • Problem with research (MZ twins not 100% match)
112
Q

What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • Behaviour is determined by early childhood experiences
  • Behaviour is influenced by things in the unconscious mind
  • Behaviour is motivated by drives: Eros, Libido and Thanatos
113
Q

What did Freud believe the mind was like?

A
  • An iceberg
  • Most of its contents are beneath the surface
114
Q

What are the three levels to the mind according to the PD approach?

A
  • Conscious: thoughts and perceptions
  • Preconscious: memories and stored knowledge
  • Unconscious: Selfish needs, fears, unacceptable sexual desires
115
Q

What is the role of the unconscious mind in the PD approach?

A
  • To store biological drives, thoughts and memories that are seen as unacceptable or unpleasant
  • These are repressed so we do not have to be aware of them
116
Q

What is the Freudian slip?

A
  • A persons true desires can only be examined by paying attention to slips of the tongue
  • Also known as parapraxis
117
Q

What are the three components of a persons personality according to Freud?

A
  • ID
  • Ego
  • Superego
118
Q

Which is the only element of personality according to freud that is entirely unconscious?

A

ID

119
Q

What are the key features of the ID in the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • Present from birth
  • Called the pleasure principle (eros)
  • Driven by basic selfish desires that are demanded to be satisfied immediately.
120
Q

What are the key features of the Ego in the PD approach?

A
  • Develops around the age of two years old
  • Called the reality principle
  • It is rational and uses logic to mediate between the ID and superego to achieve an acceptable solution
121
Q

What are the key features of the Superego in the PD approach?

A
  • Develops at around 5 years old
  • Called the morality principle
  • Strives to uphold moral standards
  • Punishes ego with guilt for wrongdoings
122
Q

According to the PD approach, what causes neurotic disorders?

A
  • If the superego is allowed to dominate
123
Q

According to the psychodynamic approach, what causes psychotic disorders?

A
  • If the ID overpowers the ego and is allowed to dominate
124
Q

What is a psychotic disorder?

A
  • Disorders that are characterised by a loss of grip on reality
  • E.g. Addictions and schizophrenia
125
Q

What is a neurotic disorder?

A
  • Disorders that are characterised by anxiety and guilt
  • E.g. Anxiety, depression and OCD
126
Q

What are defense mechanisms according to the PD approach?

A
  • A way of helping the ego to balance the conflicting demands of the ID and the Superego
  • They are unconscious strategies used by the ego to prevent anxiety when placed with unpleasant situations
  • They distort reality
127
Q

What are the 3 defense mechanisms according to the PD approach?

A
  • Repression
  • Denial
  • Displacement
128
Q

What does repression as a defense mechanism mean?

A
  • Forcing a distressing memory into the unconscious mind
  • This makes it no longer something we are aware off
129
Q

What does denial mean as a defense mechanism?

A
  • Refusing to acknowledge or admit a aspect of reality
130
Q

What does displacement mean as a defense mechanism?

A
  • Transferring an unacceptable emotion from the true source onto a substitute target that’s seen as more acceptable
131
Q

What are the key features of the psychosexual stages?

A
  • The libido is focused on a particular erogenous zone in each stage
  • The child gains pleasure by stimulating the erogenous zone
  • There is a conflict in each stage that the child must resolve
  • If the conflict isn’t resolved then it leads to a fixation where the child is stuck in that stage
  • The fixation manifests itself into certain personality traits in adulthood
132
Q

What are the 5 psychosexual stages in order?

A
  • Oral
  • Anal
  • Phallic
  • Latent
  • Genital
133
Q

In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the oral stage?

A
  • Birth to 1 Yo
  • Erogenous zone = mouth
  • Pleasure from biting and sucking activities (E.g. breastfeeding)
  • Fixation caused by weaning of breastfeeding to early or late
  • Fixation consequences = biting fingernails, smoking, operating
134
Q

In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the Anal stage?

A
  • 1-3 Yo
  • Erogenous zone = Anus
  • Pleasure from defecting
  • Fixation caused by potty training being too lenient or too strict
  • If too strict (anally retentive) become overly neat and tidy when older
  • If too lenient (anally explulsive) become messy and disorganised when older
135
Q

In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the phallic stage?

A
  • 3-6 Yo
  • Erogenous zone = genitals
  • Girls have the electra complex
  • boys have the oedipus complex
  • consequences of not resolving the corresponding complex includes sexual deviance, homosexuality and gender identity issues
136
Q

In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the Latent stage?

A
  • 6-11 Yo
  • No particular erogenous zone
  • Sexual pleasure spread across the body
  • Calm time for development
  • Develop defense mechanisms
  • Make friends
137
Q

In the psychosexual stages, what are the key features of the genital stage?

A
  • 12 onwards
  • Erogenous zone = genitals
  • Libido focused on genitals and stay there for rest of life
  • Reach full sexual maturity
  • If all stages completed successfully then the child will be mentally healthy and sexually mature
138
Q

What is the oedipus complex?

A
  • Is the complex for boys during the phallic stage
  • Libido focused on their mother
  • Conflict : father is a rival for mums attention
  • Develop castration anxiety
  • Resolved on identification with father so develops gender identity and development of superego
139
Q

What is the Electra complex?

A
  • Is the complex for girls during the phallic stage
  • Develops an unconscious desire for their father
  • Girls begin to see their mother as rivals
  • Girls begin to experience penis envy : blame mum for it
  • Start to identify with mother
  • Replaces desire for penis with the desire for a baby
140
Q

How did Freud support the Oedipus complex?

A
  • With the case study of Little Hans
  • He was a 5 Yo boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse on the street
  • Freud suggested that his phobias a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses
  • Horses was a symbolic representation of Han’s real unconscious fear: the fear of castration
141
Q

What is a strength of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • Has practical applications (psychoanalysis)
142
Q

What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic?

A
  • Not scientific (Seen as pseudoscience)
  • Methodological flaws (case studies)
  • Has a deterministic view (no free will)
143
Q

What are the key assumptions of the humanistic approach?

A
  • Focus on studying unique subjective human experiences (person centred approach)
  • People have free will and are in control of their behaviour
  • Rejects use of objective and experimental methods
144
Q

Who suggested a ‘person centred approach’ (humanistic approach)

A

Carl rogers and Abraham Maslow

145
Q

Who suggested a ‘person centred approach’ (humanistic approach)

A

Carl rogers and Abraham Maslow

146
Q

What is a person centred approach? (humanistic)

A

The idea that each Human is unique and is in control of their own destiny

147
Q

What does humanism focus on?

A

Subjective human experience and how that shapes the individual

148
Q

What do people need to achieve positive self worth and achieve their potential according to Carl Rogers?

A
  • Unconditional positive regard
  • Positive self worth
149
Q

What is unconditional positive regard? (humanistic)

A
  • Where other people accept and love us despite any faults.
150
Q

What are the consequences of unconditional positive regard?

A
  • Feel free to try things out
  • Feel able to make mistakes without feeling that love and acceptance will be withdrawn
  • essential for the development of producing well-adjusted adults
151
Q

What is positive self worth?

A
  • When a person feels confident and positive about themselves
  • Faces challenges and accepts failure
152
Q

What are the two versions of the self? (humanistic)

A
  • Ideal self
  • Perceived actual self
153
Q

What is congruence? (humanistic)

A
  • The level of similarity between the ideal self and the actual self
  • If we achieve congruence then we have a higher sense of self worth and can achieve personal growth
154
Q

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

A

The goals humans desire to achieve

155
Q

What is the order of the hierarchy of needs?

A

Self-actualisation
Self-esteem
Love and belonging
Safety
Physiological

156
Q

According to Maslow, how many people achieve self-actualisation?

A

1-2%

157
Q

What is person-centred therapy?

A

A non directive therapy and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions

158
Q

What 3 things should a effective therapist do according to Rogers?

A
  • Genuineness
  • Empathy
  • Unconditional positive regard
159
Q

What is the aim of person centre therapy?

A
  • Increase a persons self worth
  • Reduce the level of incongruence
  • Help a person become ‘fully functioning’
160
Q

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach?

A
  • Practical applications (person centred therapy)
  • Holistic (doesn’t reduce complex behaviours)
161
Q

What are the weaknesses of the humanistic approach?

A
  • Seen as pseudoscience (vague methods)
  • Culturally bias (only uses western culture norms)

AQA A-level Psychology (11 decks)

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