Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
(106 cards)
1
Q
Outline the role of Wundt in the origins of psychology
A
- The first psychology lab was opened in Leipzig, Germany
- Aim of psychology was to describe the “nature of human consciousness” in a carefully controlled, scientific environment
2
Q
Define introspection
A
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind
3
Q
Outline the role of standardised procedures in the origins of psychology
A
- The same standardised instructions were given to all participants and stimuli (objects or sounds) were presented in the same order
- For example, participants were given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts, images and sensations, which were then recorded
4
Q
Define structuralism
A
- Introspection led to identifying the structure of consciousness by breaking it up into the basic structures : thoughts, images and sensations
- This marked the beginning of SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY, separating it from its broader philosophical roots
5
Q
What were the early behaviourists’ (e.g. Watson) views on introspection and psychology (1900s)
A
- Rejected introspection
- Watson argued introspection was SUBJECTIVE because it’s influenced by a personal perspective
- According to the behaviourist approach, “scientific” psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured
6
Q
Outline how the behaviourist approach (1930s) dominated psychology for 50 years
A
- Skinner brought the language of the natural sciences into psychology
- The behaviourists focussed on learning, and the use of carefully controlled lab studies, which would dominate psychology for 50 years
7
Q
Outline how the cognitive approach (1950s) viewed psychology following the computer revolution
A
- Cognitive approach studied mental processes scientifically
- Following the computer revolution of the 1950s, the study of mental processes was seen as legitimate within psychology
- The mind was likened to a computer and psychologists tested predictions about memory and attention using experiments
8
Q
Outline how the biological approach (1980s) viewed psychology after introducing technological advances, e.g. fMRI
A
Biological psychologists have taken advantage of recent advances in technology, including recording brain activity by using scanning techniques, e.g. fMRI, EEG and using advanced genetic research
9
Q
Aspects of Wundt’s work are scientific. How is this a strength of the emergence of psychology as a science?
A
- He recorded the introspections within the controlled lab environment
- He also standardised his procedures so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way
- Therefore, Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approaches
10
Q
Aspects of Wundt’s work are subjective. How is this a weakness of the emergence of psychology as a science?
A
- Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their “private” mental processes. Such data is subjective, as participants may have hidden some of their thoughts
- This makes it difficult to establish meaningful “laws of behaviour”, one of the aims of science
- Therefore, Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were naïve and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry
11
Q
Wundt made a significant contribution to psychology. How is this a strength of the emergence of psychology as a science?
A
- Wundt produced the first academic psychology journal and wrote the first psychology textbook
- He is often referred to as “the father of psychology”
- His pioneering research set the foundation for approaches that were to come, particularly the behaviourist and cognitive approaches
- This shows that, despite the flaws in his early experimental research, Wundt made a significant contribution to psychology
12
Q
Research in modern psychology can claim to be scientific. How is this a strength of the emergence of psychology as a science?
A
- Psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences - to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour
- Learning, cognitive and biological approaches all use scientific methods, e.g. lab studies are controlled are unbiased
- Throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline
13
Q
Some approaches use subjective data. How is this a weakness of the emergence of psychology as a science?
A
- Humanistic approach doesn’t formulate general laws of behaviour
- Psychodynamic approach uses case studies with unrepresentative samples
- Psychologists study humans who are active participants and therefore respond to demand characteristics
- Therefore, a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience is not desirable or possible
14
Q
Psychology does not have a clear paradigm, and therefore may not class as a science. How is this a weakness of the emergence of psychology as a science?
A
- Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm - a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who work within that subject agree on
- Psychology does not have a paradigm, HOWEVER, most would agree it’s the study of mind and behaviour
- This suggests that the question of whether psychology is a science remains unanswered
15
Q
Outline the key features of the behaviourist approach
A
- Only focusses on observable and measurable behaviour - rejected introspection because of its vague and immeasurable concepts
- Controlled lab studies - tried to maintain control and objectivity in their research
- Used non-human animals as test subjects - behaviourists suggest the learning processes are the same in all species, so animals can replace human as test subjects
16
Q
Outline classical conditioning through the use of Pavlov’s dogs
A
17
Q
Outline operant conditioning through Skinner’s research with rats
A
- Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
- When a rat activated a lever, it was rewarded with a food pellet
- A positive consequence led to a behaviour being repeated (POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT)
- If pressing a lever meant the rat would avoid an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated (NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT)
18
Q
Describe the 3 consequences of behaviour
A
- POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - receiving a reward when behaviour is performed
- NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - avoiding something unpleasant when behaviour is performed
- PUNISHMENT - an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. Punishment decreases it
19
Q
Behaviourism uses well-controlled research. How is this a strength of the behaviourist approach?
A
- This approach has focussed on the careful measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings
- Behaviourists have broken behaviour down into “stimulus - response” units and studied causal relationships
- This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility
20
Q
The behaviourist approach may oversimplify learning. How is this a weakness?
A
- It may ignore important influences on behaviour, (e.g. thought) and sees the mind as a BLACK BOX
- Other approaches, e.g. SLT and cognitive include mental processes
- This suggests learning is more complex than just what we observe
21
Q
The behaviourist laws of learning have real world application. How is this a strength of the behaviourist approach?
A
- The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours and problems
- TOKEN ECONOMY SYSTEMS reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that are exchanged for privileges (operant conditioning). Successfully used in prisons and psychiatric wards
- This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application
22
Q
Behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism. How is this a weakness of the behaviourist approach?
A
- The approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned and ignores any influence that free will may have on behaviour
- Skinner suggested that free will was an illusion. When something happens, we may think “I made the decision to do that”, but our past conditioning determined the outcome
- This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour (as suggested by the cognitive approach)
23
Q
How are ethical issues regarding the Skinner box study a weakness of the behaviourist approach?
A
- Procedures such as the Skinner box allowed behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over their experimental “subjects”
- HOWEVER, the animals were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so they were always hungry
- Therefore, there is a question of benefits vs costs - some would argue that there have been enormous benefits (e.g. application the therapy) which offsets the harm the animals experienced
24
Q
Outline the key features of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
A
- Learning that occurs indirectly - Bandura agreed with the behaviourist approach that learning occurs through experience. HOWEVER, he also proposed that learning occurs in a social context through observation and imitation of others’ behaviour
- Vicarious reinforcement - children and adults observe people’s behaviour and take note of its consequences. Behaviour that is seen to be rewarded is more likely to be copied
- Mediational processes - play a crucial role in learning
- Identification with role models - people are likely to imitate the behaviour of those with whom they identify. Such role models are similar to the observer, attractive and have high status
25
Outline the 4 mediational processes in Social Learning Theory (ARMM)
1. ***ATTENTION*** - whether behaviour is noticed
2. ***RETENTION*** - whether behaviour is remembered
3. ***MOTOR REPRODUCTION*** - being able to do it
4. ***MOTIVATION*** - the will to perform the behaviour
26
Outline Bandura's 1961 Bobo dolls study
* Children watched either :
* An adult behaving AGGRESSIVELY towards a Bobo doll
* An adult behaving NON-AGGRESSIVELY towards a Bobo doll
* When given their own doll to play with, the children who had seen aggression were much more aggressive towards their doll
27
Outline Bandura and Walters' 1963 Bobo dolls study
* Children saw videos of an adult who was aggressive towards Bobo dolls and was either :
* REWARDED
* PUNISHED
* THERE WAS NO CONSEQUENCE
* When given their own doll, the children who saw the aggression rewarded were much more aggressive themselves, even weeks later
28
What were the conclusions of the Bobo dolls studies?
* Children are likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model (MORE LIKELY IF ADULT WAS THE SAME GENDER AS THEM)
* Modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT)
29
SLT emphasises the importance of cognitive factors. How is this a strength of Social Learning Theory?
* Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer a comprehensive account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors are omitted
* Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain behaviours
* This suggests that SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach by recognising the role of MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES
30
According to recent research, SLT makes little effort to reference the biological factors involved in learning. How is this a weakness of SLT?
* Recent research suggests that observational learning is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain
* This allows us to empathise with and imitate other people
* This suggests that SLT may make too little effort to reference the influence of biological factors on social learning
31
SLT relies too heavily on evidence from lab studies. How is this a weakness of Social Learning Theory?
* Many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of children's behaviour in lab settings and this raises the problem of DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS
* The main purpose of a Bobo doll is to hit it. So the children in those studies may have been behaving as they thought was expected
* Aggression was operationalised by seeing HOW the children hit the doll, e.g. punching, pounding, etc.
* Thus, the research may tell us little about how children actually learn about aggression in everyday life
32
SLT has real world applications. How is this a strength of Social Learning Theory?
* Social learning principles can account for how children learn from other people around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted
* This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, e.g. how children come to understanding their gender roles by imitating role models in the media
* This increases the value of SLT as it can account for real world behaviour
33
How is reciprocal determinism a strength of Social Learning Theory?
* Bandura emphasised ***reciprocal determinism*** - we are influenced by our environment, but we also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform
* This element of choice suggests there is some free will in the way we behave (e.g. choosing our friends)
* This is a more realistic and flexible position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach as it recognises the role we play in shaping our own environment
34
Outline the emergence of cognitive neuroscience in the cognitive approach
* Scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
* With advances in brain scanning technology, scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing
* This includes research in memory that has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex
* Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders, e.g. parahippocampal gyrus → OCD
35
Outline how computer models to explain mental processes in the cognitive approach
* Computer models refer to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind (e.g. conversational machines to deal with consumer enquiries)
* By running such a programme, psychologists can test their ideas about information processing
36
Outline how theoretical models to explain mental processes in the cognitive approach
Information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model
37
Describe the 4 different types of schema in the cognitive approach
* ***Role schema*** - proper behaviours in given situations - expectations about people in particular positions, e.g. teachers, doctors, etc.
* ***Self schema*** - about ourself : idealised and possible
* ***Person schema*** - expectations about personality traits
* ***Event schema*** - SCRIPTS : what happens in certain situations
38
Scientific and objective methods are used in the cognitive approach. How is this a strength?
* Cognitive psychologists have always employed controlled and rigorous methods of study, e.g. lab studies in order to infer cognitive processes at work
* In addition, the fields of biology and cognitive psychology came together (COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE) to enhance the scientific basis of study
* This means that the study of the mind has established a credible, scientific basis
39
Research on cognitive processes may lack external validity. How is this a weakness of the cognitive approach?
* The use of inference means cognitive psychology can occasionally be too abstract and theoretical
* Research often uses artificial stimuli (e.g. word lists)
* Therefore, research of cognitive processes may lack external validity and not represent everyday experience
40
The cognitive approach has application to everyday life. How is this a strength?
* The cognitive approach is dominant in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
* For instance, AI and the development of the robots, the treatment of depression and improving EWT
* This supports the value of the cognitive approach
41
The cognitive approach is based on machine reductionism. How is this a weakness?
* Although there are similarities between the operations of the human mind and computers (e.g. inputs→outputs, central processor, storage systems), the computer analogy has been criticised
* Emotion and motivation have been shown to influence accuracy of recall in eyewitness accounts. These factors are not considered within the computer analogy
* This suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
42
How is soft determinism a strength of the cognitive approach?
* The cognitive approach recognises that our cognitive system operates within certain limits, but we are free to make decisions before responding to a stimulus
* This is in contrast to the behaviourist approach which suggests we are passive “slaves” to the environmnt and lack free choice in our behaviour - no room for human agency
* This suggests that the cognitive approach takes a more flexible middle ground position and is more in line with our subjective sense of free will
43
Describe how everything psychological is at first biological
If we want to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body, e.g. genes and neurochemistry
44
Describe how, according to the biological approach, the mind and body are one and the same
* The mind lives in the brain - meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
* This is in contrast to the cognitive approach, which sees the mind as separate from the brain
45
Define neurochemistry and outline its role in the biological approach
* Neurochemistry = action of chemicals in the brain, neurotransmitters transmit messages
* An imbalance of neurotransmitters may be a cause of some mental disorders, e.g. underproduction of serotonin in OCD
46
Describe how behaviour has a genetic basis, according to the biological approach (twin studies)
* Twin studies are used to investigate genetic influences
* Concordance rates between twins are calculated - the extent to which share the same characteristic
* Higher concordance rates among identical (MZ) twins (100% same) than non-identical (DZ) twins (~50% same) is evidence of a genetic basis
47
Describe the difference between genotype and phenotype and how it's influenced by environmental factors (PKU disorder)
* Genotype = actual genetic makeup
* Phenotype = way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
* The expression of genotype (phenotype) is influenced by environmental factors
* PKU is a genetic disorder that can be prevented by a restricted diet
* This suggests that much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture
48
Describe how the biological approach uses the theory of evolution to explain behaviour
* Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection
* Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed onto future generations
* Such genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring advantages
* For example, attachment behaviours in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected
49
What is a difference between behaviourism and biological geneticists in terms of tabula rasa
Behaviourism believes in tabula rasa, whereas biological geneticists think we are programmed, so behaviour is innate
50
Neurochemistry has real world application (drug therapy for mental disorders). How is this a strength of the biological approach?
* Understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain has led to the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders
* For example, SSRIs treat clinical depression by increasing levels of serotonin at the synapse and reduce depressive symptoms. Antipsychotics can be used to treat schizophrenia
* This means that people with depression are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life, rather than being confined to a hospital
51
Neurochemistry alone cannot account for all cases of depression. How is this a weakness of the biological approach?
* Antidepressants don't work for everyone
* Cipriani et al. compared 21 antidepressants and found wide variations in their effectiveness
* This challenges the value of the biological approach as it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of depression
52
The biological approach uses scientific methods. How is this a strength?
* In order to investigate both genetic and neurochemical factors, the biological approach makes use of a range of precise and objective methods
* These include scanning techniques, e.g. fMRI, PET, CAT, etc. which assess biological processes in ways that are not open to bias
* This means that the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data
53
Biological explanations are deterministic. How is this a weakness of the biological approach?
* The biological approach sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control
* HOWEVER, the way genotype is expressed (phenotype) is heavily influenced by the environment. Not even genetically identical twins look and think exactly the same
* This suggests that the biological approach is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment
54
Discuss the role of natural selection as an evaluation point for the biological approach
* Critics of Darwin's work (e.g. Popper) claim it's not possible to show evolution happening, only that it has taken place (**unfalsifiable**)
* HOWEVER, others argue that natural selection is supported by fossil records (e.g. gradually changing forms from dinosaurs to birds)
* This suggests that although natural selection is unable to tell us what species will evolve into, it provides an adequate of past development
55
What are the 3 elements that make up the mind, according to Freud?
* ***CONSCIOUS*** - what we are aware of (tip of the iceberg)
* ***PRECONSCIOUS*** - thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and “slips of the tongue”
* ***UNCONSCIOUS*** - a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour
56
Outline the tripartite model for the psychodynamic approach
* ***ID*** - PLEASURE PRINCIPLE : primitive part of the personality that demands instant gratification
* ***EGO*** - REALITY PRINCIPLE : mediator between Id and Superego
* ***SUPEREGO*** - MORALITY PRINCIPLE : internalised sense of right and wrong. Punishes the Ego through guilt. Appears age 5
57
Outline Freud's 5 psychosexual stages
* ***ORAL (0-1 y/o)*** : pleasure focus = mouth, the mother's breast is the object of desire
* ***ANAL (1-3 y/o)*** : pleasure focus = anus, the child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faeces
* ***PHALLIC (3-6 y/o)*** : pleasure focus = genital area
* ***LATENCY*** : earlier conflicts are repressed
* ***GENITAL (puberty)*** : sexual desires become conscious
58
Describe the Oedipus and Electra complexes from the psychodynamic approach
* In the PHALLIC stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and murderous hatred for their father
* Later, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values
* Girls of the same age experience the opposite of this (feelings for their father, hatred of their mother)
59
Outline the 3 defence mechanisms used by the Ego to reduce anxiety in the psychodynamic approach
* ***REPRESSION*** : forcing a distressing memory out of the unconscious mind
* ***DENIAL*** : refusing to acknowledge reality
* ***DISPLACEMENT*** : transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target
60
Freud's psychodynamic approach introduced psychotherapy. How is this a strength?
* Freud's psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
* Psychoanalysis claims to help clients deal with everyday problems by providing access to their unconscious, using techniques, e.g. dream analysis
* Therefore, psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-day “talking therapies” (e.g. counselling)
61
Freudian therapy may be inappropriate for clients who have lost touch with reality. How is this a weakness of the psychodynamic approach?
* Although psychoanalysis is claimed successful for clients with mild neuroses, it is inappropriate, even harmful, for more serious mental disorder, such as schizophrenia
* Therefore, Freudian therapy (and theory) may not apply to mental disorders where a client has lost touch with reality
62
The psychodynamic approach has explanatory power on the influence of the childhood on adult personality. How is this a strength of the psychodynamic approach?
* Freud's theory is controversial and often bizarre, but it has had influence on Western contemporary thought
* It has been used to explain a wide range of behaviours (moral, mental disorders) and drew attention to the influence of childhood on adult personality
* This suggests that, overall, the psychodynamic approach had had a positive influence on psychology and modern-day thinking
63
The psychodynamic approach includes untestable concepts. How is this a weakness?
* Karl Popper (philosopher of science) argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification, in the sense that it cannot be disproved
* Many of Freud's concepts, such as the Id or the Oedipus complex, occur at an unconscious level, making them impossible to test
* This means that Freud's ideas lack scientific rigour, the theory is pseudoscience, rather than real science
64
How is psychic determinism a weakness of the psychodynamic approach?
* The psychodynamic approach suggests that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts - Freud believed there was no such thing as an “accident”
* HOWEVER, few psychologists would accept this view, a it leaves no room for free will beyond early childhood
* This suggests that Freud's views were too extreme as most people do have a sense of control over their behaviour
65
Outline how the concept of free will is central to the humanistic approach
* Humanistic psychologists reject attempts to establish general principles of human behaviour
* We are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws - a person-centred approach
66
Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs in the humanistic approach
* The 4 lower levels (deficiency needs) must be met before the individual can achieve self-actualisation (growth need)
* Self-actualisation refers to the innate tendency that each of us has to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can possibly be
67
Describe the aim of Rogers' client-centred therapy (congruence)
* Rogers argued that personal growth requires an individual's concept of self to be CONGRUENT with their ideal self (the person they want to be)
* If too big a gap, the person will experience a state of INCONGRUENCE and self-actualisation isn't possible
68
Describe how parents who impose conditions of worth on their child may prevent personal growth, according to the humanistic approach
* Issues, e.g. worthlessness and low self-esteem have their roots in childhood and are due to a lack of UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD from our parents
* A parent who sets boundaries on their love for their child (conditions of worth) by claiming “I will only love you if … ” is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future
69
Describe how the humanistic approach has had a lasting impact on counselling psychology
* In Rogers' client-centred therapy (counselling), an effective therapist should provide the client with 3 things :
* Genuineness
* Empathy
* Unconditional positive regard
* The aim is to increase feelings of self-worth and reduce incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self. Rogers' work transformed psychotherapy
* “Non-directive” counselling techniques are practised, not only in clinical settings, but throughout education, health, social work and industry
70
The humanistic approach is anti-reductionist. How is this a strength?
* Humanistic psychologists reject any attempt to break down behaviour and experience into smaller components
* They advocate HOLISM - the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (their relationships, past, present and future, etc.)
* This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context
71
Humanistic psychology has little evidence to support its claims. How is this a weakness of the humanistic approach?
* Unlike behaviourism, humanastic psychology has relatively few concepts that can be reduced to single variables and measured
* This means that humanistic psychology in general is short on empirical evidence to support its claims
72
Humanistic psychology is a positive approach. How is this a strength of the humanistic approach?
* Humanistic psychologists have been praised for promoting a positive image of the human condition - seeing people as in control of their lives and having the freedom to change
* Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between ***_“common unhappiness and absolute despair”_***
* Therefore, humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative
73
The humanistic approach may be guilty of a western cultural bias. How is this a weakness?
* Many humanistic ideas (e.g. self-actualisation) would be more associated with individualist cultures in the West, such as the USA
* Collectivist cultures, e.g. India, which emphasise the needs of the group, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology
* Therefore, it's possible that the approach doesn't apply universally and is a product of the cultural context that it was developed in
74
Discuss limited application as an evaluation point of the humanistic approach
* Critics argue that, compared to other approaches, humanistic psychology has had limited impact within psychology, or practical application in the real world
* HOWEVER, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslow's hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace
* This suggests that the approach does have value, despite the fact that (unlike other approaches), it is resolutely “anti-scientific”
75
Outline the key features of comparison of approaches
* ***Nature*** : nature is the idea that behaviour is due to inherited factors - the structure and functioning of human bodies, especially genes, hormones and biochemistry
* ***Nurture*** : nurture is the idea that behaviour is due to the environment - learning, socialisation and experience
* ***Reductionism*** : the belief that human behaviour can be mostly effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts
* ***Determinism*** : all behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable
* ***Eclectic approach*** : combines elements of other approaches
76
What is the psychodynamic approach's view on development? (comparison of approaches)
* Most coherent theory, tying concepts and processes to psychosexual stages that are determined by age
* Freud saw very little further development once a child entered the genital stage as a teenager
77
What is the cognitive approach's view on development? (comparison of approaches)
As part of intellectual development, children form increasingly complex schema as they get older
78
What is the biological approach's view on development? (comparison of approaches)
Maturation - important principle, where genetically determined changes in a child's physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics
79
What is the humanistic approach's view on development? (comparison of approaches)
* Development of the self is ongoing throughout life
* HOWEVER, childhood is a particularly important period and a child's relationship with their parents is important (UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE SELF REGARD)
80
What are the behaviourist approach and SLT's view on development? (comparison of approaches)
No coherent stages of development, but learning processes are continuous, occurring at any age
81
Define the nature vs nurture debate (comparison of approaches)
* Inherited biological factors (nature) vs environment and experience (nurture)
* Biological and SLT are furthest apart in the debate of nature vs nurture
82
What is the behaviourist approach's view on nature vs nurture (comparison of approaches)
* Babies are blank slates (tabula rasa)
* All behaviour comes about through learned associations, reinforcement or, in the case of SLT, observation and imitation
* ***_NURTURE_***
83
What is the biological approach's view on nature vs nurture? (comparison of approaches)
* Behaviour is the result of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents ***_(nature)_***
* Though the way it's expressed is influenced by the environment ***(_nurture_)***
* ***_NATURE AND NURTURE_***
84
What is the psychodynamic approach's view on nature vs nurture? (comparison of approaches)
* We are driven by innate biological instincts, represented by the Id ***(_nature_)***
* But the ways these instincts are expressed is shaped by our social and cultural environment ***(_nurture_)***
* ***_NATURE AND NURTURE_***
85
What is the humanistic approach's view on nature vs nurture? (comparison of approaches)
* Parents, friends and wider society have a critical impact on a person's self-concept
* ***_NURTURE_***
86
What is the cognitive approach's view on nature vs nurture? (comparison of approaches)
* Many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate ***(_nature_)***
* They are constantly refined through experience ***(_nurture_)***
* ***_NATURE AND NURTURE_***
87
Define the reductionism vs holism debate (comparison of approaches)
* Reductionism = behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into constituent parts
* Holism = phenomena are best understood by looking at the interaction of many different factors
88
What is the behaviourist approach's view of reductionism vs holism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_REDUCTIONIST_***
* Stimulus → response units (mind = black box)
89
What is the biological approach's view on reductionism vs holism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_REDUCTIONIST_***
* Behaviour broken down to the level of genes or neurons
90
What is the psychodynamic approach's view on reductionism vs holism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_REDUCTIONIST_***
* Influence of sexual drives and biological instincts
* ***_HOLISTIC_***
* Dynamic interaction between 3 parts of the personality (Id, Ego, Superego)
91
What is the cognitive approach's view on reductionism vs holism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_REDUCTIONIST_***
* Brain = information processing system and ignores influence of emotion
92
What is Social Learning Theory's view on reductionism vs holism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_REDUCTIONIST_***
* Key processes (imitation, modelling, etc.) though they do place emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning, and how these interact with external influences
93
What is the humanistic approach's view on reductionism vs holism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_HOLISTIC_***
* Investigates all aspects of an individual, including the effects of interaction with others and wider society
94
Define determinism (comparison of approaches)
All behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable
95
What is the behaviourist approach's view on determinism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_BEHAVIOURAL DETERMINISM - HARD DETERMINISM_***
* Behaviour is environmentally determined by external forces that we are unable to control (e.g. operant conditioning)
96
What is the biological approach's view on determinism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_GENETIC DETERMINISM - HARD DETERMINISM_***
* Behaviour is directed by innate influences
97
What is the psychodynamic approach's view on determinism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_PSYCHIC DETERMINISM - HARD DETERMINISM_***
* Unconscious forces that drive our behaviour are the ultimate cause of behaviour, and these are rationalised by our conscious mind
98
What is the cognitive approach's view on determinism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_SOFT DETERMINISM_***
* We are the “choosers” of our own thoughts and behaviours. yet these choices can only operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced
99
What is Social Learning Theory's view on determinism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM - SOFT DETERMINISM_***
* As well as being influenced by our environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviour we choose to perform
100
What is the humanistic approach's view on determinism? (comparison of approaches)
* ***_NO DETERMINISM_***
* Human beings have free will and operate as ACTIVE AGENTS who determine their own development
101
What is the behaviourist approach's view on the explanation and treatment of psychological disorders? (comparison of approaches)
* Abnormaility arises from MALADAPTIVE or FAULTY learning in the sense that inappropriate or destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced
* Behaviour therapies (e.g. SD), which aim to condition new, more healthy responses, have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias
102
What is Social Learning Theory's view on the explanation and treatment of psychological disorders? (comparison of approaches)
Little application to treatment, but the principles of modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours, (e.g. aggression) may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models
103
What is the psychodynamic approach's view on the explanation and treatment of psychological disorders? (comparison of approaches)
* According to Freud, anxiety emerges from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and the overuse of defence mechanisms
* Psychoanalysis has had some success as a therapy, but is not appropriate for everyone as it requires a considerable input from the patient in terms of time and ability to talk about and reflect on emotions
104
What is the cognitive approach's view on the explanation and treatment of psychological disorders? (comparison of approaches)
* More effective and applicable, especially when combined with behaviour therapy as CBT (e.g. in the treatment of depression)
* It aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking, which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour
105
What is the humanistic approach's view on the explanation and treatment of psychological disorders? (comparison of approaches)
Counselling based on Rogers' philosophy that closing the gap between the self-concept and ideal self will increase self esteem and stimulate personal growth
106
What is the biological approach's view on the explanation and treatment of psychological disorders? (comparison of approaches)
Revolutionised treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy (e.g. antipsychotics for schizophrenia), which regulates chemical imbalances in the brain
