Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
(116 cards)
1
Q
what is psychology?
A
scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context
2
Q
what are the features of science?
c
o
r
e
A
Controll - fair test, same conditions
Objectivity- without bias or influence
Replicability- repeatable
Empiricism- gained through observation
3
Q
what are the names of the three philosophers who had an impact of psychology’s development?
A
- Rene Descartes (1596- 1650)
- John Locke (1632-1704)
- Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
4
Q
how did Rene Descartes (1596-1650) have an impact on the development of Psychology?
A
- french philosopher
- suggested the mind and body are independent from each other (philosophical stance known as Cartesian Dualism)
- demonstrated his own existence with the quote “I think therefore I am”
5
Q
how did John Locke (1632-1704) have an impact on the development of Psychology?
A
- proposed Empiricism (the idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses, and that human being inherit neither knowledge not instincts)
6
Q
how did Charles Darwin (1809-1882) have an impact on the development of Psychology?
A
- evolutionary theory that human and animal behaviour has changed over successive generations, so individuals are stronger, more adaptive genes survive and reproduce -> weaker genes are weeded out (survival of the fittest)
7
Q
why is Wundt’s work significant? and how?
A
- it marked the beginning of scientific psychology- separating it from its broader philosophical roots.
- he did this by setting up the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig Germany in 1870s
8
Q
what did Wundt propose (according to him…) ?
A
no one could observe an experience better than the person having the experience
9
Q
what was Wundt’s aim? what did it lead to?
A
analyse the nature of human consciousness and this represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions.
10
Q
what was Wundts method known as and what is it?
A
- Introspection
- means looking into
- examination of ones thoughts
11
Q
what is the method that Wundt uses?
A
- participants focused on a complex stimulus
- report back their conscious thoughts during their tast
- asked to report back their inner experiences
12
Q
what did Wundt claim?
A
with sufficient training, mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systematically as they occurred during introspection
13
Q
what happened to participants in Wundts investigations?
A
• presented with a controlled stimuli
• asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing as they looked or listened
• this made is possible to compare different participants reports in response to the same stimuli and establish general theories about perception and other mental processes
14
Q
what had to be described by participants in Wundts investigation?
A
• intensity, duration, mode (sense they felt) and quality of sensation
15
Q
what did Wundt aim to develop?
A
theories about mental processes such as language and perception
16
Q
what is structuralism?
A
isolating the structure of consciousness
17
Q
true or false,
“the stimuli that Wundt snd his coworkers experienced were always presented in the same order and same instructions were issued to all”
A
TRUE
18
Q
what are some of the main assumptions about the psychodynamic approach?
A
- unconscious forces in our minds determine our thoughts, feelings and behaviour
- our behaviour as adults is storngly influenced by childhood experiences
- abnormal behaviour is a result of mental conflict
- the mind can be divided into three levels of consciousness which can be illustrated by the iceberg analogy: unconscious mind- hidden below surface has the most influence on our personality
19
Q
explain the three dif levels of consciousness?
A
- conscious = small amount of me tak activity we jnow about & responsible for dealing wifh out everyday aftuons of thtr present (fhoughts and perceptions)
- preconscious = things we could be aware of if we wanted to or tried, responsible for storing easily accessible memories and past events ( memories & shared knowledge)
- unconscious = things we are unaware of and cant controll, stores all our experiences especially traumatic (fears, unacceptable sexual desires, violent motives, immoral urges, selfish needs, shameful and traumatic experiences)
20
Q
what model insinuates that out personality is split into three?
A
tripartite
21
Q
describe the ID
A
- present at birth
- impulsive and unconscious part of brain
- demands immediate satisfaction
- pleasure principle
- gain gratification
- animal prt of psyche
- governed by instinctual drives like sex, food and drink.
- if frustrated it becomes aggressive
22
Q
describe the ego
A
- present at 2/3 years
- conscious rational part
- function is to work out realistic ways to balance the demands of the id in a socially accepting way
- governed by reality principle
- balance super ego and id
23
Q
describe the super ego
A
- present at 4/5 years
- represents child sense of right and wrong and their ideal self
- seeks to perfect and civilise our behaviour
- learned through identification with parent and others
- moral part of the psyche
- behave in ways our parents would approve
- punishes with anxiety and guilt
24
Q
what is the dynamic ideal or equilibrium?
A
three components of the brain in a state of balance
25
what are ego defence mechanisms?
ways that the ego protects itself from unconscious thoughts and feelings that may cause stress if they become conscious
- used to deal with the conflicts of the superego and id
26
name the 8 different ego defence mechanisms?
- denial, displacement, repression, projection, regression, reaction formation, rationalisation, sublimation
27
define denial?
the unconscious refusal to accept reality
28
define displacement
take anger or impulse and divert it from its source to someone else
29
define repression
burying of the problem into the consciousness so that you no longer think about them
30
define projection
disguising their own threatening impulses by pinning them on other people
31
define regression
retreating to an earlier stage of development
32
define reaction formation
switching unacceptable impulses into their opposite
33
define rationalisation
justifying actions and covering up the real unconscious reasons
34
define sublimation
re channelling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable stuff
35
why is the psychosexual stage of development theory controversial? But why is it okay?
because Freud suggests sexual energy is present right from birth, however he is talking about unconscious desires so children are not aware of these needs
36
what does Freud call the different parts of our bodies that become particularly sensitive as we grow?
erogenous zones
37
what is libido?
our sexual energy
38
name the five stages in the psychosexual stage of development? and whats a way to rememeber them!!!
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
Old Age Pensioners Love Guinness
39
describe the oral stage?
• 0-1 years
• mouth is the focus of sensation and pleasurable experiences (organ of pleasure)
• the ID is dominant
• babies can become fixed if over or under fed
• key experience is weaning- child loss of intimate contact with mother
40
describe the anal stage
• 1-3 years
• organ of pleasure is now the anus
• child becomes aware of reality - ego develops
• too strict or lax potty training can cause fixation
• fixation may lead to either an anally retentive (obession with detail and controll) or an anally expulsive (emotional outbursts) personality
41
explain the phallic stage
• 3-6 years
• organ of pleasure is genitals
• child becomes aware of gender differences and becomes obsessed with their own genitals
• most important stage according to Freud
• where the oedipus complex occurs
42
explain the latency stage
• 6 years old - puberty
• sexual desires remain dormant
• children want nothing to do with opposite sex
• social and intellectual development occurs
43
explain the genital stage
• puberty to maturity
• marks beginning of mature adult sexuality
• ID makes powerful demands in form of heterosexual desures
• opposite sex is now needed to satisfy the labido
44
what is fixation
• too much or little stimulation the libido might become fixated in the stage and this would affected the development of the adult is personality
45
true or false Freud viewed homosexuality as abnormal!
true
46
summarise the oedipus complex
• originates form the greek tragedy of King Oedipus who unwittingly married his mother and killed his father
• in the phallic stage- children have unconscious sexual desires for their opposite sex parents and this makes them resentful of the same sex parent and they see them as a competitor for love
47
what happens to boys in the oedipus complex?
Boys, unconsciously desire their mothers, but realise their father is bigger and stronger, so they can't compete. When they realise that girls don't have a penis, they think they have been castrated and fear that their father will castrate them too, if their desire for their mother is uncovered
48
“boys fear that their father will castrate them too, if their desire for their mother is uncovered”
what is this known as?
castration anxiety
49
how did Freud suggest boys resolve castration anxiety?
• They identify with their father and internalise his morals and standards, which becomes the superego.
• Boys think that if they become more masculine their father will like them and not want to castrate them.
50
why is Freud very unpopular with feminists ?
• Freud viewed femininity as falled masculinity
• The Electra Complex was not clearly defined by Freud. As he was a product of his time, he concentrated on boys in his theories and added girls on, as almost, an after thought.
51
what did Freud argue happened to girls in the electra/ oedipus complex?
• He argued that girls believe they do not have a penis because their mother must have already castrated them.
• They turn to their fathers for love in the hope of regaining their penis.
• Girls suffer Penis Envy for the rest of their lives.
• The only way a woman can resolve her penis envy is by having a male baby, taking a male lover or having a career, basically try to become more like a man as a way of compensating for the lack of penis.
52
Which one of the following statements is false?
A • Repression can lead to unpleasant memories causing distress
B • Repression causes people to have difficulty accessing
unpleasant memories
C • Repression involves people choosing to forget unpleasant
memories
D • Repression involves unpleasant memories being kept from conscious awareness
C • Repression involves people choosing to forget unpleasant
memories
53
Which one of the following statements is false?
A The Id is responsible for pleasure-seeking behaviour
B The Id is responsible for unreasonable behaviour
C The Superego is responsible for bad behaviour
D The Superego is responsible for guilty feelings
C
54
Jed was given a detention meaning that he would miss the football match after school. Jed felt extremely angry. Later that day, Jed was called in to the Head of Year's office for kicking his locker at break time.
Identify and explain the defence mechanism Jed was displaying.
(how would you answer it)
• which defence mechanism
• explain the dm
• explain how its relevant
55
what is the focus in each stage:
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- latency
- genital
- mouth is the source of nourishment and pleasure
- bowl and bladder elimination is source of pleasure due to the ability to controll
- coping with incestuous sexual feelings and genitals
- dormant
- maturation of sexual interests
56
what is the development of personality in each of these stages:
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- If child is not sufficiently nourished, they fixate their pleasure seeking energies on this stage - constantly stimulating the mouth through smoking, biting, chewing, etc. The person also exhibits passive dependence (like a nursing infant).
- Either become anal expulsive - disorganised and often late to appointments, etc. or anal retentive - highly controlled, rigid, and compulsively neat.
- Oedipus Complex1 - The male child develops feelings for his mother and hatred for his father, who is in control of the mother's attention. This leads to feelings of guilt and leads to the boy identifying with his father - identification leading to development of the superego.
Alternatively, girls develop penis envy.
57
what is the healthy resolution of these stages:
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- Ability to form relationships with others and accept their affection; enjoyment of food and drink
- The ability to deal with authority and to have a balance between being orderly and being disorganised
- The superego is based on an internalisation of the views of the same-sex parent, leading to the development of a conscience and mature morale development
58
what is the frustration of harsh treatment for the stages:
- oral
- anal
• Too soon: Oral aggressive character: is characterised by aggressiveness, domination, pessimism, envy and suspicion.
Signs inciude chewing gum or ends of pens.
• Too strict/ too little gratification: Anal retentive character: is neat, stingy, precise, orderly and obstinate.
Obsession with organisation and excessive neatness.
59
what are signs of overindulgece in the stages:
oral
anal
• Too late: Oral receptive character: is optimistic, gullible, over dependant on others, trusting, and full of admiration for others. Signs include smoking/ eating.
• Too lenient: Anal expulsive character: is generous, messy, disorganised, careless, and defiant, reckless, hot tempered & destructive.
60
what are signs of harsh treatment or overindulgence in the phallic stage?
• Phallic character: is reckless, self-assured and a harsh, punitive superego, and may have problems with sex and sexual identity. Freud suggested that a fixation at this stage may lead to homosexuality.
• Oedipus complex - If boys never identify with father: In boys only according to Freud
• Electra complex - If girls never identify with mother: (in girls only, later developed by Carl Jung)
Penis Envy
61
what are signs of healthy resolution, over indulgence or negection in the stages:
- latency
- genital
• Freud didn't say a lot about this period except it was about growing independence away from your parents.
• Is the ideal. Well-adjusted, mature adult who is able to love and be loved, work hard and contribute to society
62
what does the behaviourist approach assume?
• that we are born neutral with no inherent personality
• it is the environment that shapes who you are
63
what are the main assumptions in the behaviourist approach?
• psych is a science
• behaviour is learnt from environment - result of a stimulus
• mind is a blank state when born
• little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and in animals
• behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour
64
what is the key study for behaviourist approach?
Pavlov (1903)
65
what is classical conditioning?
learning by association
66
show the three steps in pavlovs research for classical conditioning?
• before conditioning =
(food -> salivation)
unconditioned stimulus -> unconditioned response
(ringing bell = neutral stimulus)
• during conditioning =
(food + bell = salivation)
UCS + NS = UCR
• after conditioning =
(ringing bell = salivation)
CS = CR
67
summarise Pavlovs study?
1903
• investigating the tole of salivation in digestion, became interested in how dogs learn to salivate before food is presented to them
68
how is operant conditioning different to classical?
• operant focuses on learning from the consequences of our behaviour rather than associating
69
summarise skinners research?
B. F. Skinner conducted research placing rats into a cage that was specially designed to deliver food only when a lever was pressed by the rat. He found that the rats quickly learned to press the lever and would continue to do this until they were full.
Skinner conducted variations of the study. One used a box that administered a continuous electric shock under the rats' feet until the lever was pressed. Another variation delivered a shock to the rat when the lever was pressed. In both cases, the rats swiftly learned what would lead to the most positive consequence and would repeat that behaviour.
70
explain the different aspects of operant conditioning (reinforcement etc)
Positive and negative reinforcements mean we are more likely to repeat a behaviour, while punishment tends to prevent behaviour being repeated.
• Positive reinforcement is a reward as a positive consequence of the action.
• Negative reinforcement means removing something unpleasant as a positive consequence of an action.
• Punishment is a negative consequence of an action.
71
explain schedules of reinforcement?
Reinforcing every response (continuous reinforcement) is a useful way to establish the learning of a particular response, but is difficult to maintain over a long period of time. A partial reinforcement schedule would reinforce regularly (e.g. every 10th time they show the response) and is more easily maintained over time.
72
explain the types of punishment?
Punishment can be positive where an unpleasant action is given as a consequence of behaviour, e.g. slapping the hand of a child when they play with a plug socket.
Punishment can also be negative where something pleasant is removed as a consequence of a behaviour, for example receiving a fine for parking in the wrong place
73
what are the basic assumptions of the humanistic approach?
• humans have free will
• psychology should study the individual person and their subjective experiences rather than applying general laws
• each person is rational and conscious being and NOT dominated by unconscious instincts
• all individuals are unique and motivated to achieve their potential
74
what is the definition of free will
we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development
75
definition of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs?
motivational theory, often displayed as a pyramid
• most basic human needs at the bottom and higher needs at the top
• it emphasised the importance of personal growth and fulfilment
• each level must be fulfilled before the individual can move up to a higher level
• humans are motivated by needs beyond those of basic survival so it is fundamental to human nature to have the desire to grow and REACH SELF ACTUALISATION!!!!
76
name the five levels in the hierachy of needs
• self actualisation
• esteem
• love/ belonging
• safety
• physiological
77
what are factors in each level in maslows hierarchy of needs?
self actualisation-
morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts
esteem- self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others
love/belonging- friendship, family, sexual intimacy
safety- security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of family, of health and of property
physiological- breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
78
what is self actualisation?
a persons motivation to reach hid or her full potential
79
if needs are not met:
• self actualisation
• esteem
• love/belonging
• safety
• physiological
• life is meaningless, restless and bored, tendency to avoid growth and development
• fearful of criticism, failure, risks + attention seeking
• lonely, show hostility towards out groups
• anxious and display flight or fight behaviour
• crave water and food
80
if needs are met:
• self actualisation
• esteem
• love/belonging
• safety
• physiological
• desire to develop and feel creative and positive and develop an identity
• confident and content, self belief and respect and prepared to step outside of your comfort zone- higher needs will present themselves to encourage you to progress
• demonstrate mutual love, trust and freedom, high needs will present themselves to encourage you to progress
• experience physical security and safety needs decrease
• no cravings and higher needs will present themselves
81
what is one way to test for congruence?
self assessment:
ten adjectives you think you are and ten you want to be, list and value them in order
(sum of list A+ sum of B)/1.1
82
what are conditions of worth
• a parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child
83
what did rogers do for his clinets in their counselling !
provide them with unconditional positive regard that they failed to receive as children
84
in rogers opinuon what should an effective therapist provide the client with?
genuineness, empathy, unconditional positive regard
85
what is client centred therapy best applied to?
treatment of mild psychological conditions like anxiety and low self worth
86
assumptions of cognitive approach?
• internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
• investigated those neglected by behaviourists such as memory, perception, thinking
• processes are private and cannot be observed so they study them indirectly by making inferences based on behaviour
87
what are inferences?
• process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
88
what is the role of scheme
packages of ideas and info developed through experiences which act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming info
89
what type of simple motor scheme are babies born with (examples)
sucking and grasping
90
positives of schema?
enables us to process lots of info quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental short cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
91
negative of schema?
distort our interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors
92
what are two ways of studying internal processes ?
theoretical model- information processing approach (info flows theough our cognitive system in w sequence of stages including input, storage, retrieval- multistore model)
• computer models - concept of a central processing unit, coding and the use of stores to hold info -> led to Ai
93
what is cognitive neuroscience?
• scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
94
history of cognitive neuroscience
• mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology
• 1860s- Paul Broca- damage to frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production
• last twenty years- advances with MRIs etc, scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes (eg research involving tasks that require use of episodic and semantic memory)
95
one possible future application of brain finger printing?
analyse the brain wave patterns of eye witnesses to determine whether they are lying in court
96
main assumtions of social learning theory?
• behaviour is learned thru experience
• we learn through observation and imitation of others
• learning occurs directly (classical and operant conditioning) and indirectly
•
97
four processes involved with social learning?
Attention
retention
Reproduction
Motivation
AR(r)M
98
what is identification
more similar the role model is to the observer the more likely they are to imitate behaviour
99
examples of identification?
age
gender
high status or likeable
100
vicarious reinforcement
learning is through observation of reinforcement of behaviour not direct reinforcement
101
KEY TERMS DEFINITIONS????
• Biological approach
• Genes
• Biological Structure
• Neurochemistry
• Genotype
• Phenotype
• Evolution
KEY TERMS
• Biological approach - A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.
• Genes - They make up chromosomes and consist of
DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and psychological features (such as mental disorder, intelligence).
Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring, i.e. inherited.
• Biological structure - An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing.
• Neurochemistry - Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning.
• Genotype - The particular set of genes that a person possesses.
• Phenotype - The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
• Evolution - The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
102
how does darwin explain the evolution of long necks in giraffes?
giraffes with longer necks will be able to reach and eat food higher up in trees so they are more likely to survive and then reproduce
103
explain what type of experiment the “twins: natures little experiment” was and why it had to be?
natural because its un ethical to perform breeding experiments to study human genetics
104
what are dizygotic twins and their features?
• non identical twins
- share 50% of genes
- like normal siblings
- product of two sperm fertilising two eggs
105
what are monozygotic twins and their features?
- identical twins
- share 100% of their genes
- product of one egg fertilised by one sperm and the embryo splitting early in development to develop into two embryos
- clone
106
why are monozygotic twins useful for experiments?
- can tell if characteristic is controlled by inherited genes or the environment
107
what is concordance?
- degree of similarity between two individuals
108
4 stages of natural selection?
• variation
• competition
• adaptions
• selection
109
what is sexual selection?
• the reproduction and passing on of genes
• intersexual selection looks at the preferences of each sex
• intrasexual selection is male competition for the female to win and pass on genes
110
explain genetics and an example of a study?
The genes we inherit from our parents provide the
'blueprint' for our bodies and brains. A slight abnormality in the genes could result in abnormalities in a person's brain functioning with the
consequence that their behaviour becomes abnormal.
EG- twin and adoption studies
111
explain neurochemistry and an example of a study for it?
To operate properly, the brain relies on hundreds of different chemicals all being in the correct balance.
These chemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones) are used to send messages round the brain and nervous system, so too much or too little of any of them can cause the brain to function abnormally.
EG- dopamine and seratonin
112
explain infection and an example of a study for it
To operate properly, the brain relies on hundreds of different chemicals all being in the correct balance.
These chemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones) are used to send messages round the brain and nervous system, so too much or too little of any of them can cause the brain to function abnormally.
EG- 7 second memory clive wearing
113
explain neuro anatamony and an example of a study for it
The brain's structure can also be damaged or improperly formed during development. This would then impact the person's ability to think, and their emotional responses, therefore their behaviour may change.
EG- addiction, pole through head affected memory
114
what is wundts full name?
- Wilhelm Wundt
115
in europe what was wundt known as? (nickname kinda)
- known as the father of psychology in Europe
116
what did wundts research reveal?
• it revealed that people are consciously aware of sensations, feelings, images, conscious mental sets, and their own thoughts
