Approaches in psychology Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
Who was Wilhelm Wundt?
A
opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychology in 1879
2
Q
What is the ‘scientific method’?
A
-assuming that all behaviour is determined and therefore it should be possible to predict human behaviour in different controlled conditions.
3
Q
What were the 3 investigative methods used by Wundt?
A
-objective= not influenced by personal feelings/opinions
-systematic= done according to a methodological plan
-replicable= ability to reproduce results
4
Q
Introspection definition
A
‘looking inwards’
-first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic thoughts, images and sensations.
5
Q
Introspection in action
(aim and procedure)
A
-wanted to develop theories about mental processes
-trained his graduate researchers to make personal observations of how he and his co workers reacted to different stimuli they were presented with i.e a ticking metronome
-analysed using structuralism= isolating structure of consciousness, done by using same stimuli
6
Q
Evaluating Wundt
controlled environment(scientific)
A
-methods were systematic and well controlled i.e introspection recordings in a lab
-standardised procedure reduces extraneous variables
-forerunner for other approaches
7
Q
Evaluating Wundt
subjective data
A
-relied on ppts self reporting their mental processes which would be influenced by perspective
-ppts may have hid some thoughts
-hard to use data to predict future behaviour(an aim of science)
8
Q
Evaluating Wundt
supporting research
A
-contemporary studies have used introspection
i.e Griffiths(1994) asked gamblers to think aloud while playing a fruit machine, to see if its different to non gamblers(upon analysis they were)
9
Q
Evaluating Wundt
Wundt’s contribution
A
-produced the first academic journal for psychological research + 1st textbook
-set foundation for future approaches
10
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science
1900s behaviourists
A
-introspection questioned by John B Watson + BF skinner due to subjective data and difficulty to establish general laws
-proposed that psych should only study what should be objectively measured/observed
11
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science
1950s cognitive approach
A
-digital revolution influenced psychologists to liken the mind to a computer i.e MSM
-tested predictions about memory + attention using experiments
12
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science
1980s Biological approach
A
-taken advantage of advances in tech to investigate physiological processes i.e fMRI and EEG to study live activity in the brain/ genetic testing to understand relationship between genes and behaviour
13
Q
Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science
modern psychology
A
-can claim to be scientific as they all use scientific methods + discipline to fulfil aim of learning and understanding behaviour i.e controlled lab studies
14
Q
Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science
Subjective data
A
-humanist approach rejects scientific approach, focussing on individual experiences.
-active ppts in research can respond to demand characteristics so study of human thought may not always be possible
15
Q
Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science
lack of a paradigm
A
-Philosopher Thomas Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm(set of principles that all in the field agree on)
-said psych is not a science because it does not have a paradigm at its core
16
Q
What is the behaviourist theory?
A
-interested in studying behaviour that can be observed not mental processes like introspection.
-objective and controlled research i.e lab studies
-believes that babies are born ‘tabula rasa’ and we all(even animals) have the same basic processes that govern learning
17
Q
Assumptions of the behaviourist approach
A
-not concerned with ‘irrelevant’ mental processes of the mind
-John B Watson(1913) rejected introspection due to vague concepts
18
Q
What are the 3 ways of learning?
A
-learning through consequence(operant conditioning)
-learning through imitation(social learning theory)
-learning through association(classical conditioning)
19
Q
Classical conditioning
A
-passive process of learning by association
-only a UCS can trigger a UCR(naturally occurs)
-A NS would not trigger UCR
-only in the UCS presence, the NS would be associated to the UCS and would trigger a UCR
-over time, the NS= a CS and would trigger a CR on its own
20
Q
Classical conditioning-
Pavlov(1927)
A
-dogs could be conditioned to salivate at sound of a bell by repeatedly serving food after the sound.
-gradually, they learned to associate the bell with food and would produce saliva at the sound
-showed that a neutral stimulus can become a learned/conditioned response via association
21
Q
definition of punishment
A
consequence of behaviour that decreases likelihood of behaviour repeating
22
Q
Operant conditioning
A
-Skinner(1958) suggested learning is an active process whereby humans and animals can operate on their environment. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences i.e reinforcement and punishment
23
Q
Reinforcement and punishment
A
-REINFORCEMENT:
+, receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed(physical or intrinsic i.e good feeling)
-, avoiding/removal of something unpleasant by performing behaviour as encouragement
-PUNISHMENT:
+, receiving an unpleasant consequence after performing a behaviour
-, removal of something pleasant after a behaviour
24
Q
B.F Skinner’s research(1953)
A
-placed rats in controlled environment(box)where he could manipulate stimuli
-the hungry rat would first accidently knock the lever and receive a food pellet.
-rat would learn if they press the lever they received food.(+ reinforcement)
-rat was subjected to an uncomfortable shock and would knock the lever by accident and turning it off
-rats learned that when the current came on they had to press the lever to remove it.
25
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
well-controlled research
-focused on measurement of observable behaviours within highly controlled lab settings.
-stimulus=response reduces extraneous variables and allow cause and effect to be established i.e skinner demonstrating reinforcement.(reliability)
COUNTERPOINT: oversimplified the learning process + ignored the influence of human thought and complexity of mental processes.
26
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
real-life application
-operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems in institutions and psych wards.
-behaviours are reinforced by tokens(secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards(primary reinforcers)
-has widespread application(external validity)
27
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
Environmental determinism
(view that behaviours are caused by external features of the environment that cannot be controlled)
-behaviourist psychologists believe that behaviour stems from learning by association/consequences and makes idea of free will redundant.
-Skinner suggested everything we do is a sum of reinforcement history
-subjective as as eliminates co-existing internal factors i.e bio factors
-incomplete explanation + limits is usage
28
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
Ethical issues
-Skinner's rats were kept hungry +underweight in cramped conditions
-viable costs that may outweigh benefits of gaining supporting research
-eliminates replicability in modern-day studies
COUNTERPOINT: procedures like Skinner's box allowed behaviourists to maintain high degree of control in experiments
29
Assumptions of the social learning theory
Bandura suggested behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of others, especially role models for approval/reward.
-learning occurs directly(conditioned) AND indirectly, combining learning + cognitive theory
-focuses on how mental factors are involved in learning
30
Bandura's stance on behaviourism
-agreed that behaviour is learned from experience but it suggested that the mind is like a black box, only focussing on stimulus + response
31
Process of having a role model
-MODELLING: person models a behaviour in person/online
-IDENTIFICATION: observer identifies with a likely role model (similarity, status, attractiveness, rewards)
-OBSERVATION: observer notices behaviour that is being modelled.
IMITIATION: observer imitates the behaviour, anticipating reward
32
What is vicarious reinforcement?
-imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seemed to be rewarded, less likely to be imitated if model is punishment
(vicarious rewards= will imitate, vicarious punishment = will avoid)
-observer learns behaviour and consequences for behaviour
33
What is the mediational process?
mental (cognitive) factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not.
34
Steps of mediational process
ARRM
-Attention(is paid to role model)
-Retention(of the behaviour being observed)
-Reproduction(ability of observer to perform behaviour)
-Motivation(will to perform behaviour depending on reward/punishment)
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Identification
people are more likely to have a role model that they identify with:
-similar characteristics i.e age, gender, ethnicity
-high status
-model's behaviour is perceived as attractive/likeable
-model's behaviour is reinforced through rewards
(seen a lot in children)
36
Study 1: Bandura, Ross and Ross(1961) - Imitating role models
Aim:
to find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model & less aggressive behaviour if exposed to non aggressive. Also to see if sex of RM & child made difference.
Procedure:
-Used equal no. of boys & girls (36) & measured how aggressive they were on 5 point scale made by nursery teacher and experimenter then put in groups based on score
-Children playing in rooms where (1) aggressive model comes in & pushes/punches/swears at bobo doll & hits with mallet, (2) non-aggressive model played quietly alongside kids in the model room
-in the arousal room, children’s toys were taken away for ‘other kids’ to insight agression
-observation room had mixture of agressive/non agressive toys and two way mirror meant experiments kept tally of behaviours
Results:
-G1 kids were aggressive with bobo doll in same way adult RM Ws.
-In G2, & control group, around 70% children had score of 0 for aggression.
-Male RM had bigger influence than female.
Conclusions:
-Behaviour can be learned by imitation even without reinforcement.
-Male RM more influential - cultural expectations.
-Verbal aggression was sex-typed, girls imitated women & boys imitated men. Imitate who they identify with.
37
Study 2: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1963a) - Replication, using filmed RMs
Aim:
-Find out if kids become more aggressive when exposed to aggressive RM in film/less realistic cartoon than live RM
-Test popular idea that filmed aggressions is cathartic. (Makes calm because it vents aggression)
Procedure:
-Same as original with extra condition of where children watched film where female adult model was dressed as cartoon cat following script.
Results:
-Control group carried out half as much aggression.
-No significant difference with live/filmed/cartoon models.
Conclusions:
-Concluded children imitate filmed and live aggression the same way.
-Watching filmed violence is not cathartic & encourages more aggression.
38
Study 3: Bandura (1965) - Replication, with rewards & punishments
Aim:
-To find out if children are more likely to imitate an RM who’s rewarded & less likely to imitate RM being punished.
-See if children are more likely to imitate when offered rewards.
Procedure:
-Basic procedure is same as original.
-Model “Rocky” went through scripted routine of aggressive behaviour.
-In reward condition, he was offered sweets & praised for “superb aggressive performance”.
-In punishment condition, he was called a “big bully” and hit with a rolled up newspaper.
-No consequences condition = nothing happened.
-Children asked to “show what rocky did” & if there was imitative aggression, they were rewarded. positive incentive condition.
Results:
-Model reward condition produced about same imitation from girls & boys as the no consequence condition.
-Model punished produced much less imitation, especially in girls (0.5).
-After positive incentive, imitation increased across all conditions.
Conclusions:
-Children less likely to imitate punished RMs. However, no consequences condition shows behaviour doesn’t have to be punished/rewarded to be imitated.
-When offered incentives, children who watched model be punished show they learnt aggressive behaviour.
-Girls are more restrained with threats of punishment.
39
Evaluation of SLT
cognitive factors
-recognises importance of cognitive factors in learning and looks at how humans+animals store info about the behaviour of others and use it to make judgements on personal behaviours
-"from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are formed"(Bandura 1997)
-comprehensive explanation of human learning due to mediational process
HOWEVER= too little focus* in biological factors i.e observational learning being result of mirror neurons in brain which lead to empathy and imitation.
*(only said bio differences influence learning potential)
40
Evaluating SLT
evidence gathered through lab studies
-Most of Bandura's ideas developed through observation of young children's behaviour in lab
-contrived nature with risk of demand characteristics
-main purpose of bobo doll is to strike it so the children may have been acting in a way they thought was expected
-may tell us very little about children learning aggression in everyday life = lacks ecological validity
41
Evaluation of SLT
real world application
-explains cultural differences in behaviour(modelling, imitation and reinforcement) + how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies, even media
-useful in understanding behaviours i.e child's understanding of gender roles
42
Evaluation of SLT
reciprocal determinism
-Bandura says we are influenced by environment but we have free will in whether we choose to imitate it through our behaviours
-contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies possibility of free will
43
Basic assumptions of the cognitive approach
-considers how our internal mental processes(thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour
-argues that these processes should be studied scientifically and not neglected, like behaviourists did
-studied by making inferences about what is going on in the mind based on behaviour
44
Define inferences
process by which cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour i.e memory study = results = STM capacity is 7+/- 2
45
The cognitive approach: Ideologies
-Compares the human mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way we process info.
-Input -> process -> output
(environment, coding/store, response)
Differences:
-humans add meaning to what they input (interpretations).
-computers ALWAYS pay attention.
-direct input through keyboard.
Focused on how internal processes (thoughts) affect behaviour; memory, problem solving, language etc.
46
The role of a schema
-'packages' of ideas and info developed through experience(have a schema for EVERYTHING)
-act as mental framework for interpretation of incoming info received by the cognitive system
i.e babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours like grasping
-with age, it becomes more sophisticated + detailed--} form developed mental representations for everything
47
Advantages and disadvantages of schema
:) -enable us to process LOTS of info quickly
-mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
:( -develop stereotypes(assumptions based on what we know abt characteristic)
-may also distort interpretations of sensory info leading to perceptual errors i.e unrealiable EWTs
48
Bugelski & Alampay(1962):
The Rat Man
-2 groups of ppts were shown sequence of pictures and asked to describe what they saw
-when shown ambiguous 'rat man', group who saw sequence of animals were more likely to say rat and group who saw sequence of faces were more likely to say man
49
Theoretical and computer models
both help psychologists understand internal mental processes
-theoretical = abstract i.e WMM/MSM(info processing approach: fluid, based on current research and based on how computer functions
-computer = actually programming computer to imitate human mind and see if certain instructions produce a similar output. proved useful in development of 'thinking machines' or AI
50
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
* scientific study of the structure of the brain + how it affects mental processes
* mapping specific areas of the brain to cog functions
-1860s, Paul Broca identified how damage to frontal lobe could permanently damage speech production(**Broca's area**)
-last 25 years, brain imaging techniques i.e **EEG**(when brain activity occurs)&**FMRI**(where activity is) helps scientists systematically observe and describe **neurological basis** of mental processes
i.e Tulving researching episodic + semantic memory, Buckner and Peterson(1996) showed types of LTM may be located on different sides of prefrontal cortex
-established neurological basis of mental disorders i.e parahippocampal gyrus(role in unpleasant emotions) + OCD
-recent usage of computer modles that are designed to 'read the brain' --} mapping techniques i.e 'brain finger painting'
-future application could be analysing brainwaves of EWs to see if they're lying
51
Evaluating the cognitive approach
objective scientific methods
-highly controlled + rigorous so researchers can infer cog processes
i.e lab studies to produce reliable, objective data
-emergence of cog neuroscience incorporates field of biology to enhance scientific basis and make it CREDIBLE
HOWEVER:
-relies on inferences rather than direct observation leading to abstract + theoretical nature
-research often use artificial stimuli i.e world lists which may not represent everyday experience(low external validity)
52
Evaluating the cognitive approach
practical, real world application
-has been applied to wide range of practical + theoretical contexts i.e contributed to AI and development of 'thinking machines' --} can revolutionise future life
-cog principles have been applied to treatment of depression and improved reliability of EWTs
53
Evaluating the cognitive approach
machine reductionism
-despite similarities between human mind and 'thinking machines' like computers(input+output, central processor, storage systems), the analogy is widely criticised
-ignores influence of human emotion and motivation on cog system i.e ability to process info
-research to back up human memory being affected by emotional factors i.e affect of anxiety on EWTs
may weaken validity of approach
54
Evaluating the cognitive approach
soft determinsm
The cognitive approach is founded in soft determinants (the view that human behaviour can be determined by internal & external factors but we can also exert free will).
-The hard determinism view says all behaviour is determined by factors other than will (genes & conditioning).
55
Define the biological approach
perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body i.e genetic inheritance and neural function
56
Assumptions of the biological approach
-everything psychological is at first biological
-must look at biological structures and processes in the body to understand behaviour
-mind lives inside the brains: thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis
-Can study this by; lab experiments (animals), brain scanning techs, case studies of brain damaged people & twin studies.
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Difference between the biological approach and the cognitive approach
cognitive views mental processes of the mind as separate from the physical brain while as biological links them
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The biological approach: The genetic basis of behaviour
-believe that psychological traits are inherited i.e intelligence, mental disorders, behaviour, just like 80% of genetic material
-twin studies used to test this by analysing concordance rates(extent to which twins share same characteristic) 0-1, 0 is no concordance & 1 is perfect concordance.
-If a characteristic (musical ability) is genetic, we’d expect all identical (monozygotic) twins to be concordant.
-Whereas the same wouldn’t be true for non identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the same genes.
-In both cases, the environment is assumed to be constant.
59
Genotype and phenotype
genotype: actual genes you inherit from parents.
phenotype: combination of genes and environment (inheritance & presentation).
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What is neurochemistry?
Relating to the actions of chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
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Influence of neurochemistry on behaviour: Neurotransmitters
-make messages travel through our nervous system--} carry chemical signals from from one neuron to the next target cell
-imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorder
i.e low level of serotonin in OCD/overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia
62
Influence of biological structures on behaviour
neurons and nervous system: -assume behaviours and experiences are caused by activity in nervous system
-system is a specialised network of cells in the body & primary communication system:
-> collect, process & respond.
-> coordinate working of diff organs & cells.
The brain:
-2 hemispheres (left & right) - 4 loves (occipital, frontal, parietal, temporal).
-cerebral cortex (85% of the brain; loads of neurones).
Hormones:
-chemicals released into bloodstream through endocrine system.
-glands produce hormones.
-CNS says hormones required & they are secreted into blood & travel to target cells.
-causes psychological response.
63
Supporting research for Hormones
Carre et al (2006) studied Canadian ice hockey team over course of season.
Found evidence of a surge in levels of testosterone whenever team played in their home stadium, suggesting hormone energised players to defend home territory.
64
Influence of evolution of behaviour
Evolution:
-process by which living organisms are believed to have developed from earlier forms during trye history of the earth.
-adaptation: how inherited characteristics in organisms change from gen to gen.
-evolutionary basis for survival.
Natural selection:
-the way some characteristics may aid survival.
-organisms that display characteristics that don’t aid survival don’t get to reproduce.
-these bad genes don’t get passed on & will die out.
-survival of the fittest.
Sexual selection:
-a characteristic that makes an individual more attractive to mate with.
-made competition: males compete with each other for female.
-female choice: males try impress & she chooses to mate.
65
Supporting research for sexual selection
Buss (1989) found across 37 cultures, women tend to desire resources & men desire physical attraction.
66
Evaluating the biological approach: real world application
-increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders
i.e antidepressants increase levels of serotonin in the brain, which is associated with reduction of depressive symptoms
-means that people with depression may be able to better manage condition and everyday life rather than constant clinical care
HOWEVER:
antidepressants don't work for everyone = Ciprani et al (2018) compared 21 antidepressants & found wide variations in effectiveness. Although most were more effective than placebos, researched concluded the effects were ‘’mainly modest”.
-Challenges value of approach as it suggests brain chem alone can’t account for all cases of (depression)
67
Evaluating the biological approach
Scientific methods
-range of highly objective and precise methods to investigate genetic + biological basis of behaviour
i.e scanning techniques like fMRIs and EEGs
-more possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes free of bias due to tech advances
OBJECTIVE AND RELIABLE DATA
68
Evaluating the biological approach
Biological determinism
-sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic out of our control BUT genotype expression is shown to be affected by environment(even identical twins aren't identical in all looks and thought)
-problematic in excusing behaviours like crime
-too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment
69
Evaluating the biological approach
Natural selection
-Critics of Darwin i.e Karl Popper claim it's impossible to falsify theory of natural selection as evolution can only be deduced, not proven
HOWEVER others claim that the basic principles are supported by fossil records
70
Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
-all behaviour can be explained in terms of the inner conflicts of the mind
Freud believed 2 main things:
-Childhood has a very big impact on our later life and can influence personality, relationships + mental health
-There is an unconscious part of our mind which contains thoughts, feelings, memories and desires we cannot access
71
The role of the unconscious
-conscious(thoughts, perceptions) are the 'tip of the iceberg'
-under the surface is the sub/preconscious that stores memories + stored knowledge not in conscious awareness
-most of our mind is made of the unconscious, storing biological drives and instincts that impact behaviour i.e Eros(libido) = life instinct, manifesting as sexuality. Thanatos = death instinct, manifesting as aggression and destructiveness.
Also contains repressed memories that are threatening/disturbing
72
Freudian slips
aka parapraxes
-gives us a glimpse into our unconscious & repressed feelings come out as “misspoken words”.
-tells about ‘hidden’ parts of our mind
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Dreams
Freud said that “dreams are the royal road to the unconscious”:
-believed they were the window/direct view to it.
-believed that things in our unconscious can cause issues if not explained.
-would analyse his patients dreams to interpret their unconscious.
manifest content: what was in the dream.
latent content: what was symbolised/represented in the unconscious.
Believed ‘unacceptable’ thought’s were hidden in unconscious as symbols in dreams, (ie. sex).
74
The tripartite model: Id, Ego, and Superego
Id:
-means 'it' and plays 'devil' role
-primitive part of our personality = no sense of right and wrong, psychic & sexualised energy / libido
-PLEASURE principle = selfish, ensuring needs are gratified
-present at birth(babies are 'bundles of Id')
-fully unconscious(based on drives and instincts)
Ego:-“I”.
-conscious & rational.
-develops around 18 months.
-sometimes allows id but aware you don’t always get what you want.
-REALITY principle.
-seeks to satisfy both id & superego via defence mechanisms
-“ego-strength” is how well ego cities with these forces (chocolate cake).
Superego:
-MORALITY principle.
-develops around 3-5 years(end of the phallic stage)
-strives for perfection (learns from parents, especially same gender parent).
-only senses right & wrong.
-guilt
75
The psychodynamic approach: Tripartite model - imbalances
-one may dominate the other 2.
-this affects personality.
E.g. driven by the id: more selfish, impulsive & reckless.
E.g. driven by the superego: more moral, perfectionist, scared, judgmental.
76
Definition + role of defence mechanisms
-unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id + Super ego
Role:
-protect conscious mind by preventing us from experiencing something you’ll find unpleasant / traumatic.
-> pushing a thought out of conscious.
-> applying thought to someone or something else.
77
How is anxiety linked to defence mechanisms?
-ego either experiences anxiety/anticipates it so activates defence mechanism
-triggered if the ego feels it will feel to meet pleasure demands of id/moral demands of superego
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Defence mechanisms
Repression (forgetting):
-pushing unwanted memories, truths, feelings & emotions into unconscious mind.
Denial:
-refusal to accept truth.
-conscious process
Displacement:
-choosing a substitute object to express feeling because it cannot be expressed to the real target
-can also have displacement activity(procrastination)
Projection:
-saying that the unacceptable thoughts are someone else's
Regression:
mind regresses to previous stage of life to cope
Reaction formation:
consciously feeling/thinking opposite of what you unconsciously feel leading to opposite behaviour
79
Evaluating defence mechanisms
-lack of testability as it is an unconscious process so can't be directly studied
-only inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts/experiences
-Intuitive appeal = most people can appreciate idea of denial, repression, displacement
80
What are the psychosexual stages?
-Freud believed the first first few years of a child’s life were vital for personality and moral development
-each stage is marked by a different conflict that must be resolved in order to progress to the next stage
-unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours/conflicts associated with that stage
-also believe in sexual energy or libido that is present from birth—> in each stage the focus is on one part of the body where most pleasure is taken from
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Oral stage
-birth to 18 months
-mouth is the focus of pleasure, mother’s breast can be the object of desire
-newborns get instant pleasure from feeding + sucking their thumb
-Id is in control
-if a baby is weaned too soon= pessimistic and sarcastic
-if a baby is weaned too late= needy, admiring of others, gullible
-oral fixation: smoking, biting nails, overly chatty etc
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Anal stage
-1 to 3 years when potty training is completed
-focus of pleasure is the anus
-child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
-parents may be too strict/lenient on potty training= causes fixation
fixation unresolved:
-Anal retentive= (hard potty train) perfectionist, obsessive
-Anal expulsive= (easy potty train) thoughtless, messy
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Phallic stage
-3 to 6 years
-focus of pleasure and sexual energy is the genitals
-Boys experience the oedipus complex and the electra complex
-starts developing super ego
-if fixated at this stage—> phallic character: self assured, reckless, narcissistic
-happens if they do not overcome the oedipus/electra complex
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Oedipus + Electra complex
Oedipus complex-FREUD:
-when a boy in the phallic stage has sexual feelings towards their mother + a resentment for their father unconsciously in the Id, but overcome this and instead look up to the father and want to be like them(in order to get someone like their mother)
Electra complex-JUNG:
-girls experience penis envy, upset with mother for castrating her, replaces her desire for a penis with a desire for a baby
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Latency period
-6 years to puberty
-no focus on sexual drive
-earlier conflicts are repressed
-children from same sex friendship
-focus on school + free time
-fixations and issues from other stages are repressed
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Genital stage
-starts at puberty
-sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
-libido focuses on the genitals
-focuses on friendships and relationships
-fixation: struggle to build any friendships/relationships
87
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach:
real world application
-introduced the idea of psychotherapy
-psychoanalysis attempted to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
-new therapy employee a range or techniques to access the unconscious i.e dream analysis to help bring repressed emotions to conscious mind and deal with them
-forerunner to many modern day ‘talking therapies’ such as counselling
HOWEVER
therapy is only successful for patients with mild neuroses, and is regarded inappropriate for more serious mental disorders i.e schizophrenia= cannot articulate thoughts as required in psychonalysis
88
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: ability to explain human behaviour
-regardless of bizarre, controversial theories, it had a huge influence on psychology and contemporary thought
-remained dominant force in psychology for the first half of 20th century and used to explain phenomena i.e personality development, abnormal behaviour + gender
-significant jn drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, like parental relationships
89
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: untestable concepts
-philosopher Karl Popper argued that if doesn’t meet the scientific criteria of falsification—> not open to empirical testing and many concepts i.e personality types occur in the unconscious
-ideas were based on the subjective study of individuals i.e Little Hans which makes it difficult to make universal claims about behaviour
-suggests approach is a pseudoscience
90
Evaluating the psychodynamic approach: psychic determinism
-much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood
-believed nothing was an accident and even even the ‘slip of a tongue’ is driven by unconscious forces and has deep meaning
-critics claim this as extreme because it dismisses free will
91
Little Hans and the Oedipus complex case study
-Hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street
-Freud suggested that his phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred into horses
-horses were symbolic of his real unconscious fear of castration during the oedipus complex
92
Assumptions of the humanistic approach
-first developed by Maslow and Rogers in the 1950s
focuses on:
-the conscious experience rather than behaviour
-on personal responsibility and free will rather than determinism
-discussion of experience rather than experimental method
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What is free will?
-notion that humans can make choices and are not fully determined by internal(biological, hormones, thought processes) or external(social pressure, consequences, association) forces
-reject more scientific models of behaviour and focus on the study of subjective experience(person centred)
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Maslow's theory (1948)
-interested in finding out what motivates people, so he created the hierarchy of needs
(must satisfy deficiency needs in order to achieve primary goal of self actualisation)
-long term deficiency can encourage mental health disorders
-'Peak experiences'= moments of achievements where needs were met
-negative life experiences can cause fluctuation between levels
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Hierarchy of needs
1) Physiological needs i.e craving food/water
2) Need for safety i.e security of body, resources
3) Need for love&belonging i.e family, reciprocal relationships
4) Need for esteem i.e confidence, self belief, dignity
5) Self actualisation= reaching full potential through personal growth(developing and changing as a person)
*May be physiological barriers preventing full potential to be reached*
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What did Maslow find about people who reached self actualisation?
-they shared certain characteristics of creativity, acceptance of others and an accurate perception of the world around them
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The self
-refers to the how we see ourselves as a person
2 basic needs:
1) positive regard from others
2) self worth feeling
-self worth develops in childhood due to parent child interactions and further develops
-Rogers believed that how self worth is important in determining physiological help
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Congruence
-When there’s similarity between a persons ideal self & how they perceive themselves to be in real life.
-too big a gap= incongruence + self actualisation impossible due to negative self worth
-Individual employ defence mechanisms to feel less threatened by inconsistencies between them + their ideal
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Conditions of worth(1959)
Rogers believed the harder you try to help process of SA, you hinder it.
positive regard: =unconditional regard is when you’re accepted for who you are.
-conditional positive regard (CPR) is when you’re accepted if you do what others want you to do.
-CPR leads to conditions of worth= these are conditions that a person perceived as significant places upon them.
-A person may experience a sense of self acceptance only if they meet expectations others have set.
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Counselling psychology
"each client has within him the vast resources for self-understanding.. and self-directing behaviour" "It is the client that knows what hurts" -Carl Rogers
-concerned with exploring where emotions come from rather than 'fixing'
-clients not patients(they are the expert)
-therapist is non directive and should provide: genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard
-aim is to increase self worth, reduce levels of incongruence and help them be fully functioning
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Application of counselling psychology
-Roger's work introduced a variety of counselling techniques for clinical settings AND other institutions i.e education
-forward looking and effect BUT best for 'mild' psychological conditions
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Evaluating the humanistic approach
Not reductionist/holism :)
-Rejects attempts to break up behaviour & experience into smaller components.
-In contrast to the other theories, humanistic psychologists advocate holism (idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person).
-more validity by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world context.
HOWEVER
reductionist approaches may be more scientific. & that’s because the ideal of science is the experiment. (IVs & DVs).
Relatively few concepts can be broken down to single variable & measured.
Means humanistic psychology is sort on empirical evidence to support its claims.
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Evaluating the Humanistic approach
Optimistic :)
-bring person into psychology & promotes positive image of the human condition.
-Freud saw humans as “prisoners of their past” & claimed we all existed between “common unhappiness & absolute despair.”
-in contrast, humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good, free to work towards achievement of their potential & in control.
-refreshing & optimistic alternative to other approaches.
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Evaluating the Humanistic approach
Cultural bias :(
-many ideas that are central to approach (individual freedom, autonomy, personal growth) would be more associated with countries that have more individualist tendencies (US) than collectivist tendencies.
-collectivist tendency cultures emphasis needs of the group & interdependence.
-the ideals of humanistic psychology wouldn’t be important to them.
-Possible that approach isn’t universal & a product of cultural context in which it was developed.
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Evaluating the Humanistic approach
limited application in psychology
-approach has been described as a loose set of abstract ideas.
-However, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques & Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation (esp in the workplace).
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Comparing approaches
S scientific
A application (treatments)
R reductionism vs holism
D determinism vs free will
I idiographic vs nomothetic(individual differences vs general findings)
N nature vs nurture
E extrapolation (animals in research)
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Scientific methods
Biological- one of the most scientific in psych i.e measurement of biochemicals
Behaviourist- observable characteristics are scientific(more objective)
Cognitive- well controlled lab studies, not directly observed
SLT- less scientific, more open to bias and not directly observable
Psychodynamic- subjective, interpretive methods i.e dream analysis
Humanistic- see no point in scientific study, humans are unique
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Application therapies
Biological- drug therapy
Behaviourism- token economy programmes, flooding(undoing classical conditioning)
Cognitive- CBT
SLT- peer mentors
Psychodynamic- psychoanalysis
Humanistic- client centred therapy
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Reductionism v Holism
Biological- Reductionist (explains behaviour as genetic/physiological/ biochemical)
Behaviourism- Experimental reductionism(stimulus, response, experimental design)
Cognitive- Experimental reductionism('decoupling', isolates variables)
Psychodynamic- more Holistic(all elements of behaviour, less scientific)
Humanistic- Holistic(does not reduce behaviour to specific elements)
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Determinism v Free will
Biological- Determinist
Behaviourism- Determinist
Cognitive- soft Determinist
SLT- soft Determinist
Psychodynamic-Determinist
Humanistic- Free will
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Idiographic v Nomothetic
(I= small case studies/sample groups, quali differences/ N= experiments/large samples, quanti data)
Biological- Nomo(general laws)
Behaviourist- Nomo(quant data laws about human behaviours)
Cognitive- nomo(use of models make general laws)
SLT- Nomo(general laws of human behaviour)
Psychodynamic- Idio(qualitative case studies)
Humanistic- Idio(qualitative differences between individuals)
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Nature v Nurture
Biological- Nature(behaviour passed on through genes BUT acknowledges phenotype)
Behaviourism- Nurture(environment forms behaviour)
Cognitive- more nurture(looks at innate mechanisms BUT processing is based on experience)
SLT- Nurture(behaviour learned from role models)
Psychodynamic- Neither(Id shows innate drives but personality affected by childhood)
Humanistic- Both(interaction not generalised)
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Extrapolation
Biological- Yes= community used animals because psychologically similar
Behaviourism- Yes= used animals testing because leading mechanisms are the same
Cognitive- No= human mental processes are too different
SLT- No= believed animals are too different
Psychodynamic- No= unconscious mind is impossible to test on animals
Humanistic- No= unscientific measuring for humans is impossible
