Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
(79 cards)
1
Q
What is Wundt most well known for?
A
- Opening first lab for psychology in Germany, 1879
2. Introducing the idea of introspection
2
Q
What is introspection?
A
The studying of the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
3
Q
How were Wundt’s techniques in introspection considered ‘scientific’?
A
- Introspections were recorded under strict conditions using the same stimulus each time
- Same standardised instructions were issued to each pp, so procedures could be replicated
4
Q
Who were the 3 figures who were involved in Psychologys early philosophical roots?
A
- Rene descartes - Suggested Cartesian Dualism (says the mind and body are independent from each other, so the mind can be an object of study in its own right)
- John Locke - proposed empiricism (all experience can be obtained through senses, and that humans dont inherit knowledge or instincts - behavioural approach)
- Charles Darwin - proposed evolutionary theory and natural selection (biological approach)
5
Q
What happens in psychology between the 17th and the 1900’s?
A
- 17th to 18th century: Psychology is seen as a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy
- 1897 - Wundt
- 1900s - Sigmund Freud:
- published ‘interpretation of dreams’
- proposes psychodynamic approach
- emphasises influence of unconscious mind on our behaviour
- develops person centred-therapy: psychoanalysis
- Argues that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflict with the mind
6
Q
Why did Watson criticise Wundts work?
A
- Introspection produced subjective data so it was hard to make general principles
- ‘private’ mental processes were hard to observe and measure
7
Q
How has psychology evolved from 1913 to now?
A
- 1913 - Watson and Skinner establish behaviourist approach.
- 1950 - Maslow and Rogers establish humanistic theory of the self (importance of self-determination and free will)
- 1960 - Cognitive revolution. Study of mental processes in much more scientific way
- Bandura proposes ‘social learning theory’: shows how cognitive factors are involved in learning (behavioural) - 1980 onwards- Biological approach is dominant due to advances in technology
- Cognitive neuroscience brings together cognitive and biological approach due to increased knowledge of brain structures
8
Q
What are the main assumptions for the behavioural approach?
A
- We should only study behaviour that is observable and measurable not like studying mental processes)
- The basic principles that govern learning are the same in all species
- We learn our behaviour due to classical and operant conditioning
9
Q
How did Skinners experiments demonstrate positive/negative reinforcement and extinction?
A
- Taught rats to activate a level in order to be rewarded with food. Rat continued to perform behaviour to receive this reward (+)
- Conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus e.g. an electric shock (-)
- Conditioned behaviour would eventually die out as rat became full, so used variable ratio schedules (used in gambling)
10
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Learning through association
- occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together (NS and UCS) so that the NS produces the same CR that was produced by the UCS alone (pavlovs dogs)
11
Q
What is operant conditioning and what is the effect of them?
A
Learning through consequences
- Positive reinforcement: receiving an award when a certain behaviour is performed
- Negative reinforcement: When an animal/human avoids something unpleasant. (e.g. handing in hw to not be told off)
- Punishment: an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
- Positive/negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated. punishment does the opposite
12
Q
What are the strengths of the behavioural approach?
A
- Scientific credibility - The focus on observable and measurable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings ( replicable) makes it influential in development of psychology as a scientific discipline
- Real life applications - Operant conditioning can be used in token economy systems (rewarding tokens/privileges for good behaviour) or when treating phobias. Treatments too much effort from patient and is suitable for patients who lack insight
13
Q
What are the limitations of the behavioural approach?
A
- Mechanistic view of behaviour - sees humans as machine-like responders to our environment, suggesting humans dont play an active role in their learning (ignores role of mental processes)
- Environmental determinism - Sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences, ignoring idea of free will
- Ethical and practical issues in animal experiments - Animals were placed under stressful and aversive conditions
14
Q
What are the main assumptions for the Social Learning Theory?
A
- Much of our behaviour is learned from experience (like behaviourists)
- Behaviour is also learnt through observation and imitation
15
Q
What is vicarious reinforcement? (SLT)
A
The idea that behaviour that is seen to have positive consequences is more likely to be imitated by the observer
16
Q
Define the term ‘mediational processes’. (SLT)
A
Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
17
Q
Name and describe the 4 mediational processes. (SLT)
A
- Attention - The extent to which we notice behaviours
- Retention - How well behaviour is remembered
- Motor reproduction - The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
- Motivation - The will to perform the behaviour (often influenced by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
18
Q
What do the first 2 of the mediational process refer to?
A
the ‘learning’ of the behaviour
19
Q
What do the last 2 of the mediational process refer to?
A
The ‘performance’ of behaviour
20
Q
Do the ‘learning’ and ‘performance’ pair have to appear together?
A
No, the behaviour can be stored and performed at a later time
21
Q
Define the term ‘modelling’ (SLT)
A
Imitating behaviour of our role models - of whom they ‘identify’
22
Q
Define the term ‘identification’ (SLT)
A
When an observer associates themselves with their role model and wants to be like their role model
23
Q
Who is most likely to be our role models?
A
People who are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status
24
Q
What was the aim of Banduras experiment?
A
To investigate the behaviour of young children children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo Doll
25
Describe the procedure of Banduras experiment?
1. Bandura split children into 3 groups
2. -First group watched an adult beat the doll and get praised for it
- second group watched the adult get punished for it
- Third group saw no consequence
26
Describe the results of Banduras experiment?
1. 1st group showed most aggression, then 3rd, then 2nd
| 2. Children who observed aggressive adult showed much more aggression than children who observed a non-aggressive adult.
27
What are the strengths of the Social Learning Theory?
1. The importance of cognitive factors in learning: SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning (than behaviourist approach) by recognising role of mediational processes
2. Explains cultural differences in behaviour: It explains how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies; we observe and imitate behaviour from those around us
3. Less deterministic than behavioural approach: We are not merely influenced by our external environment, we also exert an influence upon it, through the behaviours that we choose to perform, suggesting we DO have a sense of free will.
28
What are the limitations of the Social Learning Theory?
1. Over reliance on evidence from lab studies: Most of his observations were carried out in labs, making it subject to demand characteristics, e.g. Children may have hit doll as they thought that was the intention of the exp. This makes studies low in internal validity
2. Underestimates role of biological factors: boys were more aggressive to bobo doll, possibly because of testosterone levels. This important influence is not accounted for in SLT
29
What are the main assumptions of the Cognitive Approach?
1. Our internal mental processes affect our behaviour
2. Private internal operations such as perception and memory mediate between stimulus and response
3. We can make inferences about the way mental processes operate, based on our behaviour
30
How do psychologists study the affect of cognitive processes on behaviour?
1- They use theoretical and computer models such as the information processing approach (I-E-S-R-O)
2- They use computer models to show there are similarities in the way info is processed:
- Central processing unit is the brain
- Concept of encoding
- The use of stores to hold info
These computer models have been useful in developing thinking machines/artifical intelligence
31
What is a schema and give an example?
A framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience
e.g. our schema for a chair, is something we sit on, this helps us to respond appropriately
32
What do schemas allow us to do? (PRO and CON)
Pro: They allow us to process lots of info quickly, preventing us from being overwhelmed by external stimuli
Con: They can distort our interpretations of sensory information, and lead to perceptual errors
33
Define cognitive neuroscience.
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
34
What techniques have been used in cognitive neuroscience and how have they contributed to our knowledge of brain structures/functions?
(give 2)
1. fMRI and PET scans = have allowed scientists to observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes/disorders. (Tulving et al found that different types of long term memory can be located on pre-frontal cortex)
2. computer generated models = can be designed to 'read the brain' (leading to the emergence of techniques like brain fingerprinting)
- This may be useful in finding out whether eyewitnesses are lying at court `
35
What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?
1. Scientific and objective methods: use of lab experiments to produce reliable/objective data and the emergence of neuroscience
2. Real Life application: Involved in Artificial Intelligence and the development of robots
3. Less Deterministic: Recognises that we are free to think before responding to a stimulus
36
What are the limitations of the cognitive approach?
1. Machine Reductionism: Ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process info e.g. memory may be affected by emotional factors
2. Lacks external validity: Too abstract and theoretical in nature due to differences in behaviour. (hard to make inferences) and usually involve artifical stimuli (e.g. memory tests involving word lists) that may not represent everyday (memory) experience
37
What are the main assumptions of the Biological Approach?
1. Everything psychological is at first biological, so we must look at biological structures/genes/neurochemistry and processes in the body in order to fully understand behaviour
2. All thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis
38
How do biologists study the 'Genetic basis of behaviour?
- To study whether behavioural characters are inherited in the same way as genetic characteristics, they use twin studies and compare the concordance rate between them:
- If monozygotic twins (identical) have a higher concordance rate than dizygotic (non-identical) twins for a certain behavioural characteristic, it suggests that there is genetic basis in behaviour
39
What is a genotype?
The particular set of genes that a person possesses
40
What is a phenotype?
An individuals characteristics, determined by genes or the environment
41
Describe the theory that explains evolution?
```
Natural selection (survival of the fittest)
- We naturally breed with others with genes that will produce offspring with desirable characteristics, helping help them to survive and reproduce. These genes have passed through the gene pool overtime and have allowed us to evolve
```
42
What are the strengths of the Biological Approach?
1. Scientific methods of Investigation: use of fMRI, twin studies, EEGs to present biological and neutral processes that are not open to bias (reliable)
2. Real Life Application: Increased understanding of biochemical processes have allowed us to develop psychoactive drugs to treat mental illnesses
43
What are the limitations of the Biological Approach?
1. Casual Conclusions: Biologists often discover associations between mental disorders and drugs, but not necessarily the cause of the mental disorder.
2. Deterministic: Sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes, in which we have no control over. Disregards idea of free will
3. Nature vs Nurture: Environmental conditions may affect behaviour too. e.g. DZ twins often have higher concordance rate than normal siblings even though they share the same level of DNA. This shows environmental factors may have an effect on behaviour
44
What is the main function of neurones?
They provide the nervous system with its primary means of communication by transmitting electrically and mechanically
45
Name the three types of neurones? (DIAGRAM)
1. Sensory neurones
2. Motor neurones
3. Relay neurones
46
Describe the structure and main function of Sensory neurones?
Structure - They have long dendrites and short axons
Function - They carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system
47
Describe the structure and main function of motor neurones?
Structure - They have short dendrites and long axons
Function - These connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands
48
Describe the structure and main function of relay neurones?
Structure - They have short dendrites and short axons
Function - They connect the sensory neurones to the motor or other relay neurones
49
Describe the main function of the cell body?
Includes nucleus, which contains genetic material of the cell.
50
Describe the main function of dendrites?
They carry nerve impulses, from neighbouring neurons, towards the cell body
51
Describe the main function of the axon?
The axon carries impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neuron
52
Describe the main function of the myelin sheath?
It protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of impulses
53
Describe the main function of the Nodes of Ranvier?
They are gaps between segments of Myelin Sheath and they speed up the transmission of the impulses by forcing it to jump along the gaps
54
Describe the main function of the terminal buttons?
They communicate with the next neuron in the chain acorss a gap called a synapse
55
What causes electric transmission?
1. When a neuron is in resting state, it is negatively charged compared to the outside.
2. When they are activated by a stimulus, they become positively charged and cause an action potential to occur
3. This produces an electrical signal that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron
56
Describe how neurons communicate with each other?
Through neural networks
- Signals within neurons are transmitted electrically
- Signals between neurons are transmitted across gaps calles synapses (gaps between neurons)
- When an electrical impulse the end of a neuron (presynaptic terminal), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles. They diffuse across the synapse to relay impulses from one neuron to the other
57
What happens once neurotransmitters cross the synapse?
It is taken up by the postsynaptic receptor sites (e.g. dendrites) and the chemical message is converted back into electrical impulses
58
What is special about the structures and functions of neurotransmitters?
1. They have their own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a postsynaptic receptor site (like a lock and key)
2. They can also have specialist functions
59
Name the two effects neurotransmitters can have on neighbouring neurons.
1. Excitation
| 2. Inhibition
60
What is inhibition?
When a neurotransmitter, such as serotonin, increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse
61
What is excitation?
When a neurotransmitter, such as adrenaline, increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse
62
What are the main roles of our nervous system?
1. To collect, process, and respond to information in the environment (communication system)
2. To co-ordinate the workings of different organs and cells in the body
63
What are the two sub-systems in the nervous system?
1. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
| 2. Central Nervous system (CNS)
64
What is the main role of the CNS and what does it consist of?
1. - It is the origin of all complex commands and decisions
- It passes messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS
2. It consists of the brain and the spinal cord
65
What is the main role of the PNS?
1. Sends info to the CNS from the outside world
| 2. Transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body
66
Briefly describe the role of the brain and how it is structured
- The brain is centre of all consciousness awareness
- The cerebral cortex is what distinguishes our functions from those of animals
- The brain is divided into 2 hemispheres
67
What is the main role of the spinal cord?
It is responsible for reflex actions such as pulling your hand away from a hot plate
68
What are the sub-systems of the peripheral nervous system?
1. Autonomic nervous system
| 2. Somatic nervous system
69
What are the main functions of the Autonomic (automatic) nervous system?
1. Governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses
2. Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs
3. It has two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
70
What are the main functions of the Somatic nervous system?
1. Controls muscle movement
2. Receives information from sensory neurones
3. Transmits info from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS
71
What is the endocrine system?
One of the bodys major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body
72
What are glands?
An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones
73
Name the different glands in our system?
1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary
3. Thyroid
4. Parathyroid
5. Adrenals
6. Pancreas
7. Ovaries
8. Testes
74
What are hormones?
Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and regulate the activities of certain cells/organs
- They are produced in large quantities but disappear quicky, and their effects are very powerful.
75
How does the Endocrine and ANS work together to release adrenaline?
1. When a stressor is perceived, hypothalamus triggers activity in sympathetic branch of the ANS
2. ANS changes from normal resting state (PS) to the physiologically aroused (SS)
3. Stress hormone, adrenaline, is released from the adrenal medulla (a part of the adrenal gland) into bloodstream
76
What does adrenaline do?
It triggers physiological changes in the body in the body (increased heart rate/contracting blood vessels/dilating air passages), which creates the physiological arousal necessary for the fight or flight response
77
What happens in the ANS once a threat has passed?
The PS returns the body to its normal resting state. Its actions are antagonistic to the SS (rest and digest response)
78
Describe the biological changes associated with the sympathetic reponse
1. Increased heart rate
2. Increases breathing rate
3. Inhibits digestion
4. Inhibits saliva production
5. Dilates pupils
6. Contracts rectum
79
Describe the biological changes associated with the paraympathetic reponse
1. Decreases heart rate
2. Decreases breathing rate
3. Stimulates digestion
4. Stimulates saliva production
5. Constricts pupils
6. Relaxes rectum
