Approaches In Psychology

Question 1

Psychology

Answer 1

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.

Question 2

Science

Answer 2

A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.

Question 3

Introspection

Answer 3

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.

Question 4

Behaviourist approach

Answer 4

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.

Question 5

What is the behaviourist approach only interesting in studying?

Answer 5

Behaviour that can be observed and measured.

Question 6

What two important forms of learning did behaviourists identify?

Answer 6

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Question 7

Classical conditioning

Answer 7

1. Learning by association.
2. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - and unconditioned stimulus and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus.
3. The neutral stimulus eventually produced the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone.

Question 8

Which scientist studied classical conditioning?

Answer 8

Pavlov.

Question 9

Pavlov’s study

Answer 9

1. Revealed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food.
2. Gradually, Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (a stimuli) with the food (another stimuli) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound.
3. So he was able to show how a neutral stimulus (bell) can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.

Question 10

Which scientist studied operant conditioning?

Answer 10

BF Skinner.

Question 11

Operant conditioning

Answer 11

1. A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
2. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.

Question 12

The Skinner box

Answer 12

First experiment
1. Conducted experiments with rats and pigeons in specially designed cages called Skinner boxes.

2. Every time rat activated lever or pigeon pecked disc in the box, it was rewarded with a food pellet.
3. From then in the animal would continue to perform that behaviour.

Second experiment
1. also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus, for example an electric shock.

Question 13

What are the three consequences if behaviour in operant conditioning?

Answer 13

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.

Question 14

Positive reinforcement

Answer 14

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed, for example, praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class.

Question 15

Negative reinforcement

Answer 15

Occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant.

When a student hands in an essay so as not to be told off, the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement.

Similarly, a rat may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever leads to avoidance or an electric shock.

Question 16

Punishment

Answer 16

Is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, for example being shouted at by the teacher for talking during a lesson.

(Finding a way to avoid that would be negative reinforcement).

Question 17

Advantages of behaviourism

Answer 17

+ Scientific methods increase objectivity and reliablity which increase credibility of research.

+ There are practical applications of this knowledge in token economy programmes (operant conditioning) and systematic desensitisation (classical condition).

Question 18

Credibility

Answer 18

More trustworthy, reliable, valid.

Question 19

Disadvantages of behaviourism

Answer 19

• Ignores the possibility of free will and the impact of biology and the unconscious mind on behaviour.
• There are ethical issues with using animals for research as they were exposed to stressful and adverse conditions.
• There are practical issues with using animals for research as they are different to humans the research may not be applicable.

Question 20

Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach (16 marks, content)

Answer 20

1. Behaviourist theories, e.g. classical conditioning (UCS, CS, UCR, CR), operant conditioning - leading by association between response and consequence.
2. Work of Pavlov - classical conditioning of the salivation response in dogs.
3. Work of Skinner - operant conditioning of bar pressing in rats and pigeons.
4. Concept of reinforcement, types of reinforcement (positive, negative, primary, secondary.

Question 21

Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach (16 marks, evaluation)

Answer 21

1. Enhancing the scientific status of psychology.
2. Use of objective scientific methods - systematic manipulations of variables, focus on the observable behaviour, control, demonstration of cause and effect.
3. Research supports view that animal and humans can learn by CC and DC.
4. Usefulness/applications e.g. prediction and modification of behaviour, therapy.
5. Oversimplification of all behaviour in terms of SR links (reductionism).
6. Ethical issues e.g. negative aspects of controlling behaviour.
7. Contrast with notion of free will (environmental determinism)

Question 22

Discuss the contribution of behaviourist psychologists such as Pavlov and Skinner to our understanding of human behaviour (16 marks, content)

Answer 22

1. Gave appreciation of how behaviour is learnt and environmentally determined.
2. Large scale data gathering and generalisation allowed for development of laws and principles.
3. Gave us theories of learning and laws of learning - classical and operant conditioning theories.
4. Emphasised importance of consequences, e.g. behaviour that is rewarded likely to be repeated.
5. Emphasised role of reinforcement and punishment - strengthens or weakens learning.
6. Insistence on objectivity and study of overt behaviour - raising psychology’s scientific status.

Question 23

Discuss the contribution of behaviourist psychologists such as Pavlov and Skinner to our understanding of human behaviour (16 marks, evaluations)

Answer 23

1. Strict scientific methods, objectivity, controlled research, verifiable finding led to raised status of psychology but meant that many aspects of human behaviour could not be studied.
2. Implications, e.g. development of laws and principles enabled prediction and control of behaviour and how these apply to human behaviour.
3. Reductionist approach focusing on lower level of explanation, e.g. S-R links/ associations therefore lacks meaning when it comes to complex human behaviours.
4. Focus just on behaviour neglected the whole person, e.g. in treatment using conditioning only.
5. Strongly deterministic - human behaviour is environmentally determined - what of free will?
6. Research mainly with animals therefore generalisation to human behaviour could be limited.
7. Discussing about the balance between reliability and validity in behaviourist research.
8. Ethical issues, e.g. as applied to control of human behaviour.
9. Comparison with what other approaches offer in explanations of human behaviour.

Question 24

Social learning theory

Answer 24

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

Question 25

Imitation

Answer 25

Copying the behaviour of others.

Question 26

Identification

Answer 26

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.

Question 27

Modelling

Answer 27

From the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstrating of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.

Question 28

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 28

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.

Question 29

Mediation processes

Answer 29

Cognitive factors (e.g. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.

Question 30

In social learning theory, how are people thought to learn through?

Answer 30

Observation and imitation.

Question 31

In what two does does the learning theory propose that learning occurs by?

Answer 31

Occurs directly (operant and classical conditioning) and indirectly.

Question 32

What are the four mental mediations processes in learning identified by Bandura?

Answer 32

1. Attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours. 2. Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered. 3. Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour. 4. Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.

Question 33

Psychodynamic approach

Answer 33

A perspective that describes the difference dynamics, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

Question 34

Psychodynamic approaches assumptions

Answer 34

1. Unconscious mind is thought to drive behaviour - if there are any issues with an individuals behaviour, they’re unconscious mind must be accessed to sort the behaviour. 2. Instincts are thought to motivate behaviour. 3. Early childhood experienced are extremely important in making us who we are - if we have certain experiences at particular times of our childhood, it will be reflected in our adult behaviour.

Question 35

What can the unconscious mind be explained with?

Answer 35

The iceberg model.

Question 36

Parts of the iceberg model

Answer 36

1. Conscious mind: the top of the iceberg that we can see. 2. Preconscious mind: look into water, you can see some of the iceberg (dreams) 3. Unconscious mind: the part of the iceberg that we are unable to see, unless we are submerged in the water (can’t easily access).

Question 37

What are the three parts to personality?

Answer 37

The Id, ego and superego

Question 38

What are the three parts to personality known as?

Answer 38

A tripartite system

Question 39

The id

Answer 39

1. Present at birth and forms up until about 18 months. | 2. Operates on pleasure principle - id gets what it wants.

Question 40

The ego

Answer 40

Develops between 18 months and 3 years.

Question 41

Superego

Answer 41

1. Develops between 3 and 6 years. 2. Forms at the end of the phallic stage. 3. Operates on morality principle.

Question 42

Defence mechanisms

Answer 42

These offer the ego protection to ensure that neither forge from id or superego is dominant.

Question 43

What are the defence mechanisms?

Answer 43

1. Repression: blocking of an unpleasant memory. 2. Denial: Refusal to accept reality. 3. Displacement: Redirecting of emotions onto other objects or people.

Question 44

Oedipus complex

Answer 44

In phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mothers and murderous hatred for their father. Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father (copy them)

Question 45

Electra complex

Answer 45

Girls of the same age experience penis envy - they desire their father as the penis is the primary love object and they hate their mother. They are though to give up the desire for their father over time and replace this desire with one for a baby - therefore identifying with their mother in the process.