Approaches (Section A- 24 Marks) Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
Book 1 of 4:
Name the 3 key figures Involved in philosophy (early psychology)
A
•Rene Decartes
•John Locke
•Charles Darwin
2
Q
Outline what Decartes believed (2)
A
Cartesian Dualism- the idea that the mind and the body work independently
3
Q
Outline what Locke believed (3)
A
Proposed empiricism- the idea that all experience can be obtained through the sense and that instincts nor knowledge are inherited by humans
4
Q
Outline what Darwin believed (3)
A
Postulated that human and animal behaviour has changed over successive generations, so that the individuals with stronger, more adaptive genes survive and reproduce (and the ones with weaker genes do not)
5
Q
AP1: When and where did Wilhelm Wundt establish the first laboratory dedicated to psychological enquiry?
A
Leipzig, Germany- in 1879
6
Q
Describe Wundt’s belief of structuralism. (2)
A
An attempt to uncover the hidden structures of the mind by describing it in terms of its most simplistic and definable components
7
Q
Describe Wundt’s method of introspection (4)
A
1• Participants describe their conscious experience as objectively as possible
2• Participants focus on a sensory object
3• Participants systematically report their experience experience by breaking their thoughts into seperate elements
-thus, individuals would report their conscious thoughts and feelings to examine their own thought processes
8
Q
Describe the impact that Wundt had on Psychology (6)
A
•Laid the foundation of the scientific approach through his controlled methods
•Established psychological schools of thought and methodologies
•His emphasis on controlled experimental conditions and systematic observation influenced modern psychological research methods
•Despite criticisms on introspections subjectivity, he established psychology as a rigorous science, inspired future psychologists, authored one of the first psychological books and produced the first academic journal
•Trained psychologists across Europe, spreading his methods widely
He was known as the ‘Father of Psychology’
9
Q
Explain two strengths of Wundt’s research (6)
A
•Wundt pioneered psychology’s shift from philosophy to science through controlled conditions and standardised methods through using testable hypotheses, boosting research replicability and understanding behaviour
•Introspection still persists today- Griffiths used it to study gambler’s cognitive processes by having them verbalise thoughts whilst playing fruit machines
10
Q
Explain two weaknesses of Wundt’s methods (6)
A
•Introspection relies on non-observable responses, as participants can report conscious experiences but not unconscious factors, limiting its explanatory factor
•Introspection provides subjective data that varies between individuals, making it difficult to establish general principles and replicate results reliably
11
Q
Outline what Wundt’s critics would say about his methods (3)
A
•Behaviourists argued that scientific psychology should focus on observable phenomena, not private mental processes
•Early behaviourists (Pavlov/Thorndike) were achieving replicable results and by the early 1900s Watson questioned its scientific value
12
Q
AP2: According to Freudian theory, what are the 3 divisions of the mind?
A
The conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious
13
Q
Outline the conscious mind according to the psychodynamic approach (3)
A
•Consists of thoughts, feelings and conceptions currently within our awareness
•Allows for rational thinking, decision making and provides awareness of external reality
14
Q
Outline the Pre-conscious mind according to the Psychodynamic approach (3)
A
•Contains thoughts, memories and knowledge not yet in the conscious mind, but can be retrieved easily and brought into the conscious mind
•Plays a role in everyday functioning- e.g recalling facts and making decisions based on pre-existing knowledge
15
Q
Outline the Unconscious mind according to the Psychodynamic approach (4)
A
•The largest and most influential part of the mind according to Freud- contains thoughts, desires and memories beyond conscious awareness
•Influences behaviour, emotions, mental health and dreams without conscious awareness
16
Q
The psychodynamic approach suggests that much of our thoughts, feelings and behaviours are shaped by our unconscious. What is this known as?
A
Psychic determinism
17
Q
State the 3 parts of the Tripartite personality
A
•Id
•Ego
•Superego
18
Q
Outline the Id (4)
A
•The primitive and instinctual part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification
•Present since birth
•Unconscious
•Seeks to satisfy basic urges e.g food/libido- often conflicts with societal norms and ego/superego demands
19
Q
Outline the Ego (4)
A
•The rational, decision making part of personality that operates on the reality principle, mediating between the demands of the Id and superego as well as the external world
•Develops gradually through infancy and early childhood
•Considers societal norms and reality before acting, helping people navigate the world by balancing conflicting demands
20
Q
Outline the Superego (5)
A
•Represents internalised societal and parental standards/ideals- moral values and ethical views
•Forms around age of 5/6
•Comprises of two components- the conscience and ego ideal
-Conscience: punishes for behaviour that contradicts our internalised norms+values
-Ego ideal: rewards us for behaviour that conforms to these norms and values
21
Q
Identify and describe Freud’s method of accessing the unconscious (3)
A
•Psychoanalysis- analysing dreams
-Freud believed dreams reveal hidden conflicts through symbolic imagery
-Aims to interpret the hidden content of dreams to manifest literal content
22
Q
State the 5 psychosexual stages of development, identifying when they occur
A
Old- Oral (birth to one year)
Aged- Anal (1 to 3 years)
Pensioners- Phallic (3 to 6 years)
Like- Latency (6 years- puberty)
Gardening- Genital (puberty+)
23
Q
Describe the oral stage of development (2)
A
•Mouth is focus of pleasure- fixated on nail biting etc
•Developed by weaning
24
Q
Describe the anal stage of development (3)
A
•Bowel and bladder elimination is focus of pleasure- developed by toilet training
•Anal retentive: excessively organised, tidy
•Anal expulsive: rebellious, disorderly, wasteful
25
Describe the Phallic stage of development (2)
•Genitals focus of pleasure- fixation on gender identity
•Developed by resolving electra/oedipus conflicts
26
Describe the latency stage of development (2)
•Dormant sexual feelings, no fixation
•Developed by improving conflictive and social skills
27
Describe the genital stage of development (2)
•Genitals focus of pleasure, developed by establishing mature sexual relationships
28
Outline the Oedipus complex (3)
1• Boys develop an unconscious sexual desire for their mother
2• Boys fear their father, leading to castration anxiety
3• Boy gives up his love for his mother, and identifies with his father leading to the superego
29
Outline the electra complex (3)
1• Girl becomes aware she does not have a penis- blames her mother for castration, seeing them both as powerless
2• Desires the ‘male symbol of power’ (penis) so desires her father as he has what she wants
3• Fears losing love of her mother- now desires a baby, identifies with her mother, adapting superego
30
What are defence mechanisms?
Psychological strategies that individuals unconsciously use to protect themselves from anxiety
31
Name the 4 self defence mechanisms
•Repression
•Denial
•Displacement
•Projection
32
Describe how repression acts as a self defence mechanism
Unconsciously pushing unwanted memories or desires out of awareness
33
Describe how denial acts as a self defence mechanism
Refusing to acknowledge aspects of reality that are emotionally distressing
34
Describe how displacement acts as a self defence mechanism
Redirecting an impulse from an original target to a more acceptable and less threatening target
•e.g kicking a bin when mad at someone
35
Describe how projection acts as a self defence mechanism
Attributing unconscious or unacceptable thoughts to another person
•e.g, instead of recognising one’s own undesirable traits, they attribute them to someone else
36
Identify the 3 fantasies outlined by Freud to explain the psychosexual stages of development
•Giraffe fantasy
•Parenting fantasy
•Plumber fantasy
37
Outline what Freud said all the fantasies indicated
•Giraffe: represented Hans trying to take his mother away from his father (sexual desire)
•Parenting: Hans wants to become his father so he can be with his mother- competition in sexual desires
•Plumber: Hans has now successfully identified with his father and has passed through the Oedipus complex
38
State and outline Freud’s other method of assessing the unconscious (3)
Transference analysis- when patients project feelings and attitudes they have towards people with a therapist who can gain insights and work through past unresolved issues
39
Outline two additional roles of the unconscious stated by Freud (4)
1• Driving force behind behaviour and personality- if a conflict is experienced during the development of the psychosexual stages, a fixation can affect an an adult’s personality
2•Protects the conscious self from conflict/anxiety
40
Explain 1 strength of the psychodynamic approach related to its accuracy (3) 1/3
1• Has explanatory power and face validity- now a widely accepted theory due to support for developmental stages and Oedipus complex via Hans
41
Explain another strength of the psychodynamic approach related to an example of support (3) 2/3
2• Support for defence mechanisms- Williams 1994 found 10% of women repressed memories of sexual assault 20 years later
42
Explain the last strength of the psychodynamic approach related to applications to real life (3) 3/3
3• Many practical applications via psychoanalysis creating a new form of therapy, making it the forerunner for many modern-day therapists
43
Explain one weakness of the psychodynamic approach related to free will (3) 1/3
1• Psychic determinism- posits that free will is an illusion, reducing human empowerment
44
Explain another weakness of the psychodynamic approach related to scientific credibility (3) 2/3
2• Concepts lack scientific credibility due to subjectivity and ungeneralisable methods, as they rely on retrospective accounts like memories
45
Explain a final weakness of the psychodynamic approach related to psychoanalysis (2) 3/3
3• Some researchers suggest psychoanalysis is ineffective and harmful to people with mental disorderers
46
True or false, Freud’s methods are falsifiable
False
they lack falsifiability
47
Briefly explain why Freud’s methods entail bias (1)
Hans’ parents big fans of Freud- relationships could skew results
48
Book 2/4:
State the 4 assumptions of the behaviourist approach
• Focus on observable behaviour
• Objectivity through lab studies
• All behaviour is learned
• Tabula Rasa
49
Describe two of the behaviourist assumptions used to increase objectivity
• Behaviourists argue psychology should focus on observable behaviour, rejecting introspection and the study of internal mental processes
• Behaviourists carry out controlled experiments in laboratory settings, eliminating extraneous variables, ensuring reliable data
50
Describe the other two assumptions made by behaviourists which link to behaviour
• Behaviour is acquired through two types of conditioning- classical and operant. They commonly use animals in their studies- believe learning processes are universal
• TR: posits that individuals are not born with innate ideas or behaviours, but they are all learned from experience
51
Define classical conditioning
Associating a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
52
What psychologist used classical conditioning, and in what year?
Pavlov- 1893
53
In Pavlovs experiment, state all the compartments and what they were.
- Before conditioning:
•food (US)= salivation (UR)
•bell (NS)= no salivation (UR)
-During conditioning:
•bell (NS) + food (US)= salivation (UR)
-After conditioning:
•bell (conditioned stimulus)= salivation (conditioned response)
54
Define operant conditioning
A learning process where behaviour is shaped by the consequences that follow
55
What influenced Skinner’s work? How? (2)
Thorndike’s law of effect- behaviour is shape and maintained by its consequences
56
Define positive reinforcement, giving an example
A pleasant stimulus is added to increase the chance of a behaviour occurring
•e.g: a child receiving praise for scoring a goal in football
57
Define negative reinforcement, giving an example
An unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase the chance of a behaviour occurring
•e.g: a child cleans their room to avoid nagging parents
58
Define positive punishment, giving an example
A negative stimulus is added to decrease the chance of a behaviour occurring
•e.g: a parent scolding their child for fighting at school
59
Define negative punishment, giving an example
A pleasant stimulus is removed to decrease the chance of a behaviour occurring
•e.g: child losing their PS4 after refusing to eat vegetables
60
What study did Watson and Rayner carry out? What did it test? (2)
Little Albert experiment (1920)- tested classical conditioning on a little boy
61
In Watson and Rayner’s experiment, state all the compartments and what they were
Before conditioning:
• white rat (NS)= no fear (UR)
• Loud noise (US)= fear (UR)
During conditioning:
• White rat (NS) + loud noise (US)= fear (UR)
After conditioning:
• White rat (CS)= fear (CR)
62
State and describe 4 strengths of classical conditioning as a way of explaining behaviour
• Deterministic approach, so allows for predictions in later life
• Utilises reductionism- more scientific, giving scientific credibility and internal validity
• Backed up by evidence from studies such as Albert and Pavlov
• Many practical applications in the form of counterconditioning- such as aversion therapy for gamblers
63
State and describe 2 weaknesses of classical conditioning as a way of explaining behaviour. Give examples to studies
• Reductionist- can’t offer a complete account of learning, which oversimplifies the complex learning processes
• Research in the area is limited, for example:
-Pavlov uses anthropomorphic studies (animals) so lacks generalisability
-The lab studies commonly used lower ecological validity, so may not reflect real life
-Little Albert couldn’t be studied longitudinally
64
State and explain 2 strengths of operant conditioning as a way of explaining behaviour (6)
• Reductionism- tested in lab conditions so enhances scientific credibility, as well as increasing reliability and internal validity. This allows for predictions to be made (determinism)
• Support for its effectiveness in shaping behaviour through real life application. Via cost benefit analysis, some of the research may be deemed acceptable due to the applications
65
State and briefly explain 4 weaknesses of operant conditioning as a way of explaining behaviour
• Environmental determinism- ignores the human capability of free will due to a mechanistic view
• Reductionism is a strict scientific method which can be oversimplified and lack meaning
• Cannot be generalised to humans- research is anthropomorphic
• Ethical issues related to certain studies- e.g skinners
66
State and outline the 3 assumptions of the social learning theory
1• Learning through experience- behaviour can be learnt indirectly through observing others, not just from direct reinforcement
2• Identification and role models: during the process of identification, individuals imitate the behaviour of their role models
3• Mediational processes: Bandura emphasised cognitive factors in learning
67
Define the term modelling in SLT, giving examples of different types
When a learner looks upto someone, and wishes to imitate their behaviour
• Live models: people physically present in the learner’s environment
• Symbolic models: people portrayed in the media
68
When are models most influential?
During identification
69
Define the term identification
Where the observer assimilates an aspect represented by their model (copying)
70
Define the term vicarious reinforcement
Learning through observing the consequences of other people’s actions- model rewarded= more likely for observer to imitate it
71
Name the 4 mediational processes
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
72
AO2: Carissa has just started learning to knit and she watches carefully when her aunt is knitting. She thinks about her aunt holds the needles and how she pulls the wool through her fingers. Carissa wonders if she can do the same with her needles and wool. She tries to copy her aunts actions as she wants her knitting to be neat and accurate.
Referring to Carissa, explain the role of mediational processes in learning (4)
• Attention- Carissa watches her aunt knit ‘carefully’
• Retention- Carissa thinks about how her aunt holds the needles, and the technique to do so
• Motor reproduction- she tries to copy her aunts skills but may not be able to in the same way if her motor abilities are behind
• Motivation- Carissa is determined to do the same as her aunt
73
Outline attention and retention in the learning of behaviour
Attention- noticing the behaviours of others
Retention- remembering what was observed
74
Outline motor reproduction and motivation in the performance of behaviour
Motor reproduction- being able to perform the behaviour- depending on physical ability and competence
Motivation- the desire to perform the behaviour- influenced by whether the behaviour was punished or rewarded
75
What experiment did Albert Bandura carry out in 1961?
The bobo doll experiment
76
Outline the 3 key findings from Bandura et Al (1961)
• Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive behaviours
• Girls showed more physical aggression if the model was male, but more verbal aggression if the model was female
• Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls and boys were generally more physically aggressive
77
What slight tweak did Bandura and Walters (1963) make to the original study?
Involved four conditions- live, filmed, cartoon and control (did not see the model at all)
78
Outline the 2 key findings of Bandura and Walters study in 1963
• Children imitated aggression more when models were rewarded, and less when models were punished- no consequences group scored in the middle
• The highest aggression levels occurred in the live/filmed conditions
79
Outline 3 strengths of SLT as an explanation of behaviour
• Takes into account cognitive factors- gives a fuller picture- a more positive approach utilising soft determinism- Bandura understands the influence of free will
• Can explain cultural variations
• Has a base of empirical evidence, giving it high internal validity
80
Briefly outline 4 weaknesses of SLT as an explanation of behaviour
• Still deterministic- limiting the capacity of free will in humans
• Contrived nature of lab studies- may lack ecological validity
• Still reductionist as it ignores biological factors
• May be socially sensitive- blame of role models
81
Book 3 of 4:
Outline the humanistic approach, stating the key figures
• Emphasises the unique nature of human beings and their inherent drive towards growth, self-actualisation and fulfilment
• Key figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are central to this approach which values human potential
82
Define free will in humanism
Humans have the ability to take control over their actions and make their own choices- contradictory to determinism
83
Define self actualisation in Humanism. Who believed in it?
•Realising one’s potential and becoming the best version of themself- pursuit of personal goals- growth and self-fulfilment needs according to the hierarchy of needs
• Maslow calls it the pinnacle of human development, but can only be met when basic needs are met
84
State what Maslow emphasised, and state the order of it, from bottom to top
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
•Physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, self-actualisation
(self actualisation is our primary goal, but we need to satisfy our basic needs to get there)
85
Describe what deficiency needs are
Comprised into basic needs- physiological and safety, and psychological needs- social and self-esteem needs
•once met they no longer influence behaviour
86
Identify and define Carl Roger’s 3 key terms on the self
• Self concept: the view a person has of themselves
• Self esteem: how much value we place on ourselves (respect)
• Ideal self: the person we aspire to be
87
Outline the difference between congruence and incongruence
Congruence refers to the alignment of a person’s self concept and ideal self, whereas incongruence is where a person’s self concept and ideal self are not aligned
• Rogers believed congruence is essential for self-actualisation
88
What is meant by conditions of worth? (Roger’s)
Conditions imposed by others that an individual must meet in order to be valued- can lead to incongruence if these expectations aren’t met
89
What did Roger’s commonly use in his therapy? Describe what this is (3)
Unconditional positive regard
• States individuals should be valued without conditions attached to their behaviour- restores congruence. He used this in his person-centred therapy
90
Explain why humanists reject the scientific approach (6)
• A person’s subjective experience and understanding of the world is of greater importance to understanding the person than objective reality
• Humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to component parts (holism)
• Each person can actively exercise free will- goes against determinism (a scientific belief)
• Each person is a rational and conscious being, not dominated by unconscious primitive instincts
• Human’s strive towards self-actualisation
91
Outline what is meant by person centred therapy
Made by Carl Rogers- focuses on creating an environment where clients feel heard and valued
92
What 3 concepts does Roger’s use in his person centred therapy? Briefly define them.
•Empathy- understanding the clients perspective
•Unconditional positive regard- accepting the client without judgement
•Genuineness- being open and honest with the client
93
Explain how PCT supports growth
Induces congruence- closing the gap between the self concept and and ideal self by developing a more positive self concept/ realistic ideal self
94
Outline 4 strengths of the humanistic approach
• Hollistic- more valid explanation of behaviour taking all aspects of a persons life into consideration
• Idiographic- does not make general laws about behaviour, appreciating individual differences
• Emphasises free will, providing an optimistic and goal orientated outlook- influential in counselling and therapy
• Rogers introduced more rigour with the Q-sort method
95
Outline 3 weaknesses of the humanistic approach
• Lacks empirical evidence as it backs scientific principles such as modern ideas like evolutionary biology- needs updating
• Uses qualitative techniques and an idiographic approach- subjective setbacks- limited application due to abstract concepts
• Less applicable in collectivist cultures that prioritise group needs
96
Outline what is meant by the cognitive approach
• Focuses on how people perceive, process and store information
• Emphasises the study of internal mental processes such as attention, perception, memory and problem solving
97
State the 5 key components of the cognitive approach
Inference
Internal mental processes
Schemas
Theoretical models
Computer models
98
Define how inference is used in the cognitive approach
Drawing a conclusion about the way internal mental processes work by making assumptions based on observable behaviour
99
Define internal mental processes. How are they studied?
• How we process information- including perception, memory, attention and language
• Studied through experiments and inferring what is happening in the mind
100
Outline schemas in the cognitive approach (3)
• Mental structures that help us organise and interpret information- they act as frameworks based on past experiences that shape how we perceive new situations
• Can be useful OR not through incorrect assumptions
101
Outline theoretical models in the cognitive approach. Give an example. (2)
Often represented as flowcharts to show how information is processed in different stages.
E.g the multi store model of memory
102
Outline computer models in the cognitive approach. How is the brain compared to a computer? (2)
Uses the analogy of the brain as a computer- how the brain processes information.
Our senses take in information like the keyboard and mouse, our brain processes information like the processing unit in a computer, and our response (via effectors) is similar to the screen changing on a computer
103
Describe 3 strengths of schemas.
• Can help us interpret new information which might be overwhelming
• Help us process large amounts of information quite quickly
• Helps us understand what may happen next, based on experience
104
What is the term for creating a brand new schema based of a new, radical experience?
Accommodation
105
Define assimilation
The cognitive process of new information fitting into our existing schema
106
Identify the names of 3 pieces of research into schema’s
Brewer and Treyen
Loftus and Palmer
Beck’s negative triad
107
Outline Loftus and Palmer’s findings about schemas (3)
• Participants memories were influenced by the verbs used (smashed vs hit)- when smashed, more likely to report non-existent broken glass
-participants relied on their schemas incorrectly
108
Outline Brewer and Treyen’s findings about schemas (3)
• 30% remembered seeing books and other items that weren’t actually there and many failed to recall items unrelated to the office
-shows the negative effect of inaccurate schemas
109
Outline Beck’s Negative Triad into the research of schemas (2)
If someone has a negative view about their self, they are likely to have a negative view about the future and the world= negative mental health
110
Outline how theoretical models are useful (2)
• Shows how cognitive processes, such as decision making,memory and perception work
• Help researchers identify the underlying mechanisms that drive human thought/ behaviour
111
Outline how computer models are useful (3)
• Provides the framework for modelling human thought processes
• AI can stimulate how we perceive, remember and store problems- more intuitive interactions
• AI can make inferences similar to human cognition
112
Explain 4 strengths of the cognitive approach
• Scientific techniques which use controlled methods to objectively make inferences
• Real world applications- influences fields like therapy, education and AI- improving practical outcomes
• Theoretical models develop influential models that explain information processing
• Based on soft determinism- suggesting that human behaviour is decided and shaped by internal+ external factors- more balanced than behaviourism
113
Explain 3 weaknesses of the cognitive approach
• Machine reductionism- simplifies complex human behaviour which neglects social and emotional factors. For example, models oversimplify the complexity of cognition- assuming linear models of thought, not appreciating the non-linear nature of human cognition
• Still relies on inference which isn’t entirely scientific
• Low external validity (ecological)- used artificial stimuli which do not reflect real life stimuli
114
Book 4 of 4:
What is the key belief of the biological approach?
All psychological processes have a physiological base- assumes behaviours are directly influenced by genes, biological structures and neurochemical processes
115
What is meant by a gene? (2)
A specific sequence of DNA bases that codes for a particular protein, influencing physical (eye colour) and psychosocial features (mental health)
116
Identify and describe two ways of studying genetics (4)
• Family studies- examines traits across generations from first degree relatives (50%) to third degree relatives (12.5%) to assess genetic and environmental influences
• Adoption studies- analyse traits in adopted individuals to separate genetic/environmental effects
• Candidate gene studies- focus on specific genes believed to influence certain traits
• Twin studies- compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins to estimate heritability
117
Define concordance rates in genetic research (2)
Measure the likelihood that two genetically related individuals (e.g twins) share the same trait
• high rates= strong genetic influence
• low rates= environmental factors play a larger role
118
Compare genotype and phenotype (2)
Genotype refers to an individual’s genetic makeup (the unique set of genes inherited) whereas phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of an individual, due to the interaction between the genotype and the environment
119
What is the largest part of the brain?
The cerebrum
120
The biological approach believes that the mind exists within the physical brain, which is in contrast to which approach?
Cognitive
121
What feature of the biological approach is tested using drugs trials
The effects of neurochemicals on behaviour
122
What does fMRI stand for?
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
123
What does EEG stand for?
Electroencephalogram
124
125
Higher levels of what neurochemical are associated with schizophrenia?
Dopamine
126
Lower levels of what neurochemical are associated with depression?
Serotonin
127
Name the 4 lobes of the brain
Frontal
Temporal
Parietal
Occipital
128
What is the famous case study used to highlight the importance of brain structures on behaviour?
Phineas Gage
129
Outline the case study of Phineas Gage
Had a metal pole through his left frontal lobe- turned into a violent and uncontrollable man, showed how this part of the brain was important for decision making/morals
130
Outline the theory of natural selection (3)
The individuals who are most adapted to their environment will survive and pass on their genes to future generations. Over time, these genes become more common as species use them to survive
131
Define evolution (2)
The gradual process by which species change over time through genetic variation and natural selection
132
Outline one example of how neurochemistry influences behaviour. (3)
Neurochemicals influence behaviour by altering people’s mood and feelings. Imbalances of neurochemicals are linked to conditions, such as an increased amount of dopamine is linked to schizophrenia
133
If something reduces the chances of an individuals ability to survive or reproduce in a given environment it is known as a…
Maladaptive behaviour
134
Define adaptive behaviours
Traits that increase an individuals chances of survival or reproductive success to be passed on to future generations
135
Explain two strengths of the biological approach (6)
• Real-world applications- increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious health disorders- e.g antidepressant drugs to increase serotonin levels- lower levels of depressive symptoms
• Uses scientific methods of investigation- advances in technology mean it is possible to accurately measure neural and psychological processes in ways that are not open to bias, e.g highly objective methods like fMRIs and EEGs
136
Explain two weaknesses of the biological approach (6)
• Treatments may not work for everyone- for example, Cipriani et al (2018) compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness- concluded the effects were fairly modest- challenges the biological approach as it suggests brain chemistry is not the only contributing factor in illnesses like depression
• Deterministic- human behaviour controlled by internal, genetic causes of what we have no control- however, the way a persons genotype is expressed is not solely due to the genes- also down to their interaction with the environment. Thus, B is too simplistic and often ignores the mediating effects of the environment
137
What is meant by cognitive neuroscience?
Bridges the gap between biology and cognition by using biological research methods to study the internal mental processes (cognition) like memory and perception
138
Outline how cognitive neuroscience has emerged (3)
- Brain Mapping (1870s): Wernicke's area located
- Localisation theory (1970-80s): Use of PET scans provided objective evidence for brain localisation
- Today- Neural basis of higher processes: researchers study a wide range of factors linked to the brain
139
Outline 3 examples of cognitive neuroscience (6)
- Raine et al (1997): PET scans showed that social, cultural and psychological factors play important roles in predisposing violence (decreased amygdala activity)
- Mcguire et al (1994): found significant correlations between ADHD symptom intensity and blood flow in many parts of the brain
- Burnett et al (2009): found a neurological network associated with guilt- prefrontal cortex activated when guilty- shows localisation
140
Explain 3 strengths of cognitive neuroscience
- Less deterministic- demonstrates the role of experience in shaping behaviour, showing biology isn't always destiny
- Advances understanding on the impact of certain regions of the brain on behaviour- insight into cognitive processes using brain imaging, such as PET scans
- Consistent results found due to controlled conditions, confidently identifying the neurological basis of mental processes leading to the development of new therapeutics
141
Explain 3 weaknesses of cognitive neuroscience
- Reductionism- over-simplifies cognition by isolating brain structures, ignoring the complexity of human cognition
- Causality isn't always directly proved by brain activity correlations- causal relationships cannot always be made
- Ethics- controversial use of mind mapping for lie detection in court, however still a practical application.
