AQA Psychology Paper 3 Flashcards
(386 cards)
1
Q
Schippa et al
A
Meta analysis
People with higher levels of parasocial relationships also watched more televison
2
Q
Intense Personal
A
Greater personal involvement obsessive thoughts and intense feelings about celebrities
3
Q
Context in SSR
A
Research may be funded by private companies who may misuse data or misinterpret same with the media
4
Q
Evaluation of the evolutionary approach for partner preferences
A
gender differences in mate preferences might stem from culture e.g. women being denied economic status in some countries
Female mate choice varies across the menstrual cycle with being open to less quality mates at the peak of the cycle
Creativity is the human equivalent of a peacock tail
5
Q
Evaluation of relationship Breakdown
A
Resurrection phase added
Impact of social phase vary with type of relationship e.g. older long term vs short term
Grave dressing phase is important as it allows person to play down their role in the break up and so do not threaten their psychological well being
Ethical issues in breakdown research duck was dealing with break ups a very traumatic time Applications for intervention and couple therapy
6
Q
CBT Assesment
A
Patient expresses thoughts realistic goals are set using the patients motivation for change
7
Q
Evaluation of family dysfunction in explaining schizophrenia
A
Some studies do not have a full 100% relapse rate for high EE families this suggests individual differences to vulnerability to EE
8
Q
Nature Debate
A
Behaviour is a product of innate heredity factors
9
Q
Study for top down approach
A
Copson
10
Q
Study for measuring and defining crime
A
Hales et al
11
Q
Personal Self Discloure
A
Sharing ones disappointments and accomplishments fears and desires
12
Q
anisogamy
A
Refers to a difference in gamete size in males and females. Eggs large and costly sperm small and cheap
13
Q
Example of double blind theory in family dysfunction
A
A mother saying I love you then turns her head away in disgust
14
Q
Aims of custodial sentencing
A
deterrence incapacitation retribution rehabilitation
15
Q
Raine
A
Cited 71 brain imaging studies of murders and psychopaths and found abnormal activity in prefrontal cortex
16
Q
Leptosome or asthetic
A
A category proposed by lombroso that describes criminals that are thin and tall as petty thieves
17
Q
Study for schiz neural
A
Leucht et al
18
Q
Symptom overlap
A
Occurs when two or more conditions share symptoms e.g. depression shares some characteristics with schizophrenia
19
Q
Crime
A
Any act that violates the law and results in punishment by the state
20
Q
Study for schiz token economy
A
Dickerson et al
21
Q
Filter Theory 3 key main points
A
Social Demography Similarity in Attitudes Complementarity of needs
22
Q
Organised type of offender
A
This type of offender commits a planned crime and may engage in violent fantasies with the victim and is high intelligence and socially competent
23
Q
Eysenck’s Personality theory link to criminal behaviour
A
Extraverts seek more arousal and thus engage in activities
Neurotics are unstable and prone to over react to situations of threat
Psychotics are aggressive and lack empathy which links them to committing crimes
24
Q
Brunner et al
A
Analysed DNA of criminals and found low levels of MAOA genes
25
Consequences of gender bias
Some theorists are able to assert worth and validation to feminine qualities Makes people see men and women the same which leads to equal treatment Ignored many ways genders differ from each other Can sustain prejudice results in major misrepresentations in both genders
26
Skill acquisition (Anger Management)
Offenders are taught various skills to help manage anger such as self regulation and cognitive flexibility relaxation and better communication skills
27
Study for parasocial relationships
Schiappa et al
28
Behavioural Strategies
Anger Management technique used to allow offender to develop problem solving skills such as strategic withdrawal of the situation and assertiveness (Novaco)
29
Attachment theory explanation for Parasocial relationships
Proximity seeking Secure Base
| Protest at disruption
30
Beta Bias
Theories that ignore or minimise differences between cultures and genders
31
Study for bottom up approach
Canter and Larkin
32
Genetic Explanations for schizophrenia
Schizophrenia runs in families A combination of genes make an individual more vulnerable
33
Study for virtual relationships
Rosenfeld and Thomas
34
Gates
The barriers that limit opportunities for the less attractive shy or less socially skilled to form relationships in face to face encounters.
35
Chen and Howitt
used khronenberg's test to access 330 male adolescent offenders from Taiwan. those with more advanced moral reasoning were involved in less violent crimes
36
Holism and humanistic psychology
Indvidual reacts as an organised whole rather than a set of stimulus responses
37
Buss
Asked people to rate characteristics and found that women preferred resources and men preferred attractiveness and youth
38
Psychic Determinism
Behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts innate drives and early experience that we cannot control (Freud)
39
Harsh Superego
If a child develops a strong identification with a very strict parent they feel excessive guilt and anxiety much of the time because any time they did act on their impulses they would be told off and feel bad The individual will commit a crime and wish to be caught to stop feelings of guilt
40
Avolition
A reduction of interest and desire to persist in goal directed behaviour
41
Informed Consent in SSR
Participants should be made aware of how taking part in the research may affect them
42
Absence of gating and virtual relationships
Gating does not really exist in virtual relationships and people who lack good physical appearance location or personality find they can make relationships quicker than face to face Yurchisin et al interviewed 11 online daters and found individuals gave accounts of better versions of themselves in their dating profiles
43
restoritive justice
A method of reducing and atoning for offending behaviour through reconciliation between offender and victim as well as the wider community
44
Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
Genetic Factors
| Neural Correlates and the Dopamine Hypothesis
45
Incapacitation
Prison is used to protect the public from offenders
46
How can speech poverty be tested>
Tasks of producing words in a set time e.g. how many animals can you name in one minute
47
3 Key points of the absorption addiction model
Entertainment social Intense personal Borderline pathological
48
Ethical Guidelines for SSR
Privacy Confidentiality Sound and Valid Methodology Deception Informed Consent Justice and Equitable Treatment Scientific Freedom Ownership of data Value of social scientists Cost/benefit analysis
49
Who created the phase model of relationship breakdown
Steve Duck
50
Evaluation of holism
looks at everything does not ignore complexity of behaviour Integrates different components of behaviour to understand the person as a whole higher in ecological validity
over complicates behaviour
does not lend to scientific methods makes it hard to determine cause and effect
neglects importance of bio explanations
51
CBT Critical Collaborative Analysis
Therapist uses gentle questions to help the patient understand illogical deductions e.g. If you hear voices how come other cant hear them?
52
Rosenhan
pesudopatients approach staff and said they heard an unfamiliar voice
They were all diagnosed and no staff recognised they were abnormal
53
Intersexual Selection
members of one sex choose mates on the basis of certain traits
54
Evaluation of the interactionist approach
Diatheses may not be exclusively genetic
OPAS scale for stress was bad because this failed to reflect development changes over time
Applications to creating antiviral medication for pregnant women
55
Crime assessment
Crime is classified as organised or disorganised (Number 3)
56
What are the 3 traits in eysenck's theory of personality?
Extraversion Introversion
Neuroticism
Stability
Psychoticism
Normality
57
Study of neural offender
Raine
58
Validity in diagnosing schizophrenia features
Gender Bias Symptom overlap Co morbility
59
Sarin and Wallin
Delusional patients showed cognitive bias in there thinking
60
Evaluation of cognitive behavioural therapy in treating schizophrenia
CBT is most affective at certain stages in the disorder e.g. self reflection is needed at acute stages
1 in 10 people in the UK can get access to the therapy
Meta analysis doesnt work very well when measuring CBT because there are such a range of methodologies to measure effectiveness
61
Anger Management is a type of
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
62
Evaluation of the bottom up approach
use objective statistical techniques however only as good as data put in
Geographical profiling cannot distinguish between multiple offenders
Geographical profiling is useful in trying to find DNA or prioritising locations to be searched
can be used for all types of criminals
63
What are the biological explanation in explaining offender behaviour
Genetic Neural Historical
64
Positive Symptoms
symptoms that are excesses of behaviour or occur in addition to normal behaviour
65
Gating in face to face relationships
Personal factors such as physical appearance and mannerisms tend to determine who we develop relationships with in our minds we catergorise and reject potential partners based on these factors
66
Tactile Hallucination example
Feeling bugs crawling under your skin
67
Aims of restorative Justice
Rehabilitation of offenders
Atonement for wrongdoing
Changing the victim's perspective
68
Dyadic Phase
a phase in relationship termination when the individual discusses termination with the partner Couples become aware of the forces that bind them together e.g. children money house At this stage the relationship can be easily saved if the couples are motivated enough to do so
69
Who created the level of moral reasoning?
Kohlberg
70
Trading tokens
Tokens need to be traded for rewards e.g. food sweets or certain privaledges
71
CBT 6 Steps
Assessment Engagement ABC Model Normalisation Critical Collaborative Analysis Developing Alternative Explanations
72
Equity Theory and inequity/dissatisfaction
partners benefits costs = other partners benefits costs Relationships that lack this equity are associated with distinct satisfaction
73
Parasocial Relationship
An individual is attracted to another person (usually a celebrity) who is usually unaware of the existence of the person who has created the relationship.
74
Protest at disruption in attachment theory explaining Parasocial relationships
The presence of prolonged distress following a separation or loss of a figure
e.g. When jeremy clarkson left top gear people were outraged and upset
75
Evaluation of victim surverys
Provides more information about the dark figure of crime but does depend on the honesty of answers
People may not want to report crime e.g. the stigma of being a rape victim
More consistent when making comparisons over time because with official stats they vary with the laws changing
Bias sample only people with postal addresses only people who have enough time on their hands
There is a 5 crime cap making someone who was a victim of crime more than 5 times e.g. domestic abuse not able to report all incidents
Self report method is unreliable
provides crime trends
76
Ownership of data in SSR
Should research findings that could potentially change peoples lives be accessible? e.g. global warming research
77
Cognitive explanations of delusions for schizophrenia
Patients experiences are a result of inadequate information processing If the patient has an egocentric bias they relate their delusions to themselves and so jumps to certain conclusions e.g. god is speaking to them This cannot be fixed with reality testing as patients as they have an impaired insight into reality
78
Evaluation of restorative justice programmes
You need an offender who has admitted to crime
Ethical concerns of victims, should a victim meet their rapist?
79
Evaluation of Token Economies in behaviour modification in offending behaviour
Easy to implement Can be implemented without lots of training
once reward is removed the stimulus response link is extinguished individual differences work on young delinquents well but not violent criminals
Ethical issues to taking away tokens behaviour is being manipulated
80
Soft Determinsim
Free will and determinism are compatible it is a middle ground
81
Reductionsism
Breaks complex phenomena into simple components suggesting behaviour is one reason
82
Who created the investment model for relationships?
Caryl Rusbult
83
Two parts of family dysfunction in psychologically explaining schizophrenia
Double Blind Theory Expressed Emotion
84
Duck's model of relationship breakdown
Different phases people go through during a breakup intrapsychic Dyadic Social Grave Dressing (resurrection added later)
85
Evaluation of equity theory
equity sensitivity the extent to which an individual will tolerate equity
gender differences in the importance of equity women are more likely to be affected and perceive more inequity than men
Cultural differences US are more likely to be in equitable relationships than Jamaican couples because western cultures perceive equity better
86
Evaluation of the idiographic approach
Focus on the individual time consuming and expensive to study individuals in depth data an be collected quickly as it is just an individual
87
Biological Reductionism
Human behaviour can be reduced to physical level because everyone is the same biological being
88
Topics to use in free will questions
Cognitive Psychology believes in free will but understand there are constraints Humanistic approach and research Criminal moral responsibility
89
Similarity in Attitudes (filter theory)
Similarity in attitudes and basic values are the best predecessor for starting relationships
90
Neutral Self Discloure
Sharing music tastes food tastes and humor
91
Study for relationship breakdown
Monrow et al
92
Pyknic
A category proposed by lombroso that describes criminals that are short and fat are criminals of deception and sometimes violence
93
Alpha bias in culture
when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different
94
Question in SSR
The research question itself may offend someone
95
Intrasexual Selection
individuals of one sex (usually males) compete directly for mates of the opposite sex
96
Satisfaction Level (investment model)
the extent to which the other person fulfils the individual's most important needs
97
Evaluation of self disclosure
intimate self disclosure only works when it is gradual e.g. big brother fights for being to intimate at the start of the show
Cultural differences western societies disclose more than eastern societies
98
Topics to use the nomothetic questions
Biological approach we are all biological entities which should be able to be explained as a whole Behaviourists seeking out a rule of learning for all humans and nonhumans Cognitive psychology aims to find general rules to thinking Eysenck personality tests to find general personality laws
99
Privacy in SSR
Asking questions of personal nature could offend
100
Evaluation of the historical approach in explaining criminality
Lombroso brought science to the study of crime
Many non criminals had similar charecteristics
Gender Alpha bias stated women were less likely to becomes criminals because they low in intelligence and has maternal instincts
There is a link between criminals and personality (eysenck)
Scientific racism
101
Study for Schiz cognitive
Sarin and Wallin
102
Equity theory study
Le and Agnew
103
Alpha Bias in gender
exaggerates the differences between women and men
104
Kurdek and Schmitt
Observered married and cohabiting hetrosexual and same sex couples, each couple completed a questionaire
Greater relationship satisfaction was associated with benefits from current relationship CL and less attractive alternatives CLA
105
Study for physical attractiveness
Walster et al
106
Rehabilitation
Prison should be used to rehabilitate offenders
107
Gender Bias
behaviour that shows favouritism toward one gender over the other
108
Maternal Deprivation theory in explaining criminality
prolonged separation with caregiver and infant Before the age of 2 Causes affection less psychopathy
109
Evaluation of social exchange theory
what might be rewarding to one person isn't rewarding to another
cost and reward are hard to measure and too vague
Real world application to relationship therapy
110
Study for validity of classification
Broverman et al
111
Co Morbility
The extent in which two or more conditions can co occur e.g. schizophrenics often substance abuse or have anxiety
112
Who created the absorption addiction model for parasocial relationships?
McCutcheon et al
113
Rosenfeld and Thomas
Studied 4,000 US adults
Found that individuals with internet access are more likely to be partnered
114
Auditory Hallucination example
Hearing voices that are not there
115
The bottom up approach
A data driven approach where statistical techniques are used to produce predictions about the likely characteristics of an offender.
116
Study for family dysfunction
Berger
117
Evaluation of parasocial relationships
parasocial relationships are universal across cultures
Reductionist
Ethical issues of wellbeing
118
Social Phase
a phase in relationship termination in which members of the social network around both parties are informed of and become involved in the termination process Family and friends start to take side
119
Alpha Bias
Psychological theories that suggest there are real and enduring differences between cultures and genders
120
Hales et al
Found offenders were honest in their answers
121
Canter and Larkin
Studied sexual assault cases and found almost all were marauders
122
monrow et al
Studied students experiencing a breakup
Found increased risk of developing depression
123
Free will and humanistic psychology
Maslow and rogers argued free will was a necessary part of behaviour. Without it we cannot reach self actualisation
124
Absorption Addiction Model
Person must do more and more for a parasocial relationship to get the same rush as they did before going further and further
125
Eysenck's theory of the criminal personality
It is a trait theory that states that personalities are made up of certain traits. Although his work was originally based on servicemen and not criminals. There are 3 personality traits to the theory.
126
moral reasoning
Thinking in a consistent and logical way about right and wrong with reference to socially agreed principles
127
diathesis stress model in genetic explanations for criminality
Genes are though of as epigenetic that can be switches on as a result of interaction with the environment
128
Maruder
Offenders home is within the geographical area
129
Profit and loss (social exchange theory)
All behaviour is a series of exchanges in attempt to maximise reward and minimise costs e.g. rewards = companionship and being cared for Costs = effort financial investment and time
130
Justice and equitable treatment in SSR
Do not publicise an idea which creates prejudice against a group Do not withhold treatment which could be beneficial for some participants so you can use them as controls
131
Nurture Debate
Behaviour is a product of environmental influences
132
Osborne and West
Found if father was criminal sons were more likely to commit crime than non-crimianl fathers
133
Kennedy and Grubin
Found sex offender often downplayed their crimes
134
Restorative justice study
UK restorative Justice Council
135
Evaluation of reductionsim
Allows for isolation of variables which is good for scientific study leads to development of drug treatment for mental illness
Over simplistic
lacks ecological validity does not address larger societal issues e.g. poverty
136
Anger Management
A form of cognitive behavioural therapy specific to changing the way a person manages their anger.
137
Beta Bias in gender
Tendency to ignore differences between genders. Any results from experiments are generalised to women.
138
Affectionless psychopathy
An inability to show affection or concern for others meaning they find it easier to commit crimes
139
Neural Explanations of criminality (regions of the brain)
prefrontal cortex Limbic System
140
Evolutionary Explanations study
Buss
141
Study for historic approach
Goring
142
The Approaches as nature of nurture
Nature Bio Psycho cognitive Humanism Behaviourism Nurture
143
Topics to use in nature questions
Schizophrenia and Forensic Twin Studies concordance rates Bowlby attachment is adaptive Attraction is evolutionary
144
Top Down Approach
Analysis of previous crimes create a profile that narrow the field of possible suspects. It relies on the intuition and beliefs of the profiler
145
Evaluation of gender bias
Feminist psychology argues that differences arise from biological behaviour but stereotypes make a far greater contribution to perceived differences
Methods to observe male and female are sometimes different so males and females will appear to be different
Reverse alpha bias feminist research aims to prove females are better
Beta bias is good as it shows equality however somethings are not equal e.g. it would be wrong to give both men and women equal maternity/paternity leave because women have more biological responsibilities
146
hostile attribution bias
the tendency to perceive ambiguous actions by others as aggressive e.g. perceiving someone to be smiling aggressive
147
Dickerson et al
Reviewed 13 studies of the use of token economy
11 reported beneficial results
148
Reducing gender bias in pyschology
Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology allow reduction of gender bias
149
Leucht et al
Meta analysis of 212 studies
Drugs tested were more impactful than the placebo
150
Insane Criminals
suffering from a mental illness
151
Broverman et al
Found clincians in the US equated mentally healthy adult behaviour to healthy male behaviour
152
Dysplastic or mixed
A category proposed by lombroso that describes criminals that are of more than one types of characteristic and are criminals against morality
153
Assigning values to tokens
Token needs to be repeatedly presented alongside or immediately before the reinforcing stimulus
154
Deception in SSR
Do not cause the wider public to believe something which isn't true by the findings you report
155
Free Will
The idea that human beings are free to make their own choices about behaviour
156
Cognitive explanations of hallucinations for schizophrenia
Individuals excessively focus on stimuli and thus will have a higher expectancy for the occurrence of a voice than normal individuals This individuals allow their inner voice to override sensory stimuli and perceive it to be an external force
157
Topics to use in culture bias questions
Ainsworth strange situation is not appropriate for non western cultures as it only used American middle class white home reared infants IQ tests developed in the west presume what counts as intelligent behaviour but intelligence varies from culture to culture Maslow's Hierarchy of needs different cultures have different needs
158
Study for self-disclosure
Sprecher et al
159
Sprecher et al
Dyads took turns in reciprocal and non reciprocal self disclosure
Individuals in reciprocal conditions were more liked
160
Uk restorative Justice Council
85% satisfaction from victims
161
Study for Diathesis stress
Tienari et al
162
What are the psychodynamic explanations for criminality?
Maternal Deprivation Weak Superego
| Harsh Superego Deviant Superego
163
Tienari et al
Studied hospital records of adopted children with a high risk and a low risk of genetic schizophrenia
High risk were less likely to develop schizophrenia with a low OPAS rating than vice vera
164
Socially Sensitive Research
Any research that might have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent.
165
Sexual Selection and long term preferences
Females are attracted to males with high resources and are able to physically protect her Men are attracted to females with wide hips and baby faces as it shows high levels of feritlity
166
Comparison level of alternatives (social exchange theory)
Person weighs up potential increase in rewards from a different partner. if alternative partners CLA is higher the relationship will not succeed
167
Study for schiz genetic
Joseph or Tienari et al
168
Evaluation of official statistics
Only a certain number of crimes get reported to police as victim may feel it is not necessary want the stigma of being a victim or believe the police will not take it seriously this is called the dark figure of crime
Person may not be aware crime has been committed and therefore does not tell police making the official statistic inaccurate
Data allows to see trends in crime
169
Drug Therapy For schizophrenia
conventional antipsychotics and atypical antipsychotics to treat mental illness
170
differential association theory
How interactions with others lead to the formation of attitudes about crime
171
Reliability in diagnosing schizophrenia
Diagnosis must be repeatable Inter rate reliability is low for schizophrenia
172
investment model features
Satisfaction Level Quality of alternatives Investment Size Commitment level
173
Commuter
Offender travels to another geographical area to commit crimes
174
What is learned in differential association theory?
A child learns attitudes towards crime What crime is acceptable in their area What crime is easier than others
175
token economy reinforcement
Tokens are given as rewards for good behaviour with some getting more than others Punishment is used to take away tokens for bad behaviour Shaping is used to given tokens for behaviour that becomes more complex over time e.g. making bed to then being polite to prison guards
176
Criminaloids
A term used by Cesare Lombroso to describe occasional criminals who were pulled into criminality by environmental influences.
177
Typical Antipsychotics
Regulate dopamine and reduce positive symptoms but have side effects
178
Evaluation of custodial sentencing and recidivism
Incapacitation is only relevant for a very small group dangerous criminals
Retribution can be achieved without imprisonment
Rehabilitation cannot happen if offenders do not or cannot be bothered to help
Differential Association Theory suggests that prisons are a breeding ground for crime
179
Geographical Profiling
The analysis of geographical locations associated with the spatial movements of a single serial offender (bottom up_
180
Evaluation of the nomothetic approach
Scientific as it is evidence based and finds casual laws and predictions
predictions can be made about groups but may not apply to individuals
loses sight of the whole person
181
Evaluation of Eysenck's theory to explaining criminality
Theory suggests personality is consistent however can change over time or change based on your enviroment
Personality tests reply on self report which is unreliable
Applications to greater conditioning experiences to ensure people with criminal personality learn from their behaviours
182
CBT Normalisation
Patient being told information that many people have hallucinations and delusions makes them feel less anxious and less isolated Placing psychotic experiences on a continuum with normal experiences makes the patient feel less stigmatised and makes recovery more likely
183
Who is it learnt from in differential association theory?
From intimate personal groups such as family groups The wider neighbourhood the degree to which the community supports or opposes crime will influence the crime rate
184
Hallucinations
Auditory visual olfactory or tactile unreal perceptions of environment
185
The matching hypothesis
Walster and Walster claims that when initiating romantic relationships individuals seek out partners whose social desirability equals theres This is mostly with how physically attractive someone is compared to yourself
186
Experimental reductionism
Reducing complex behaviours to isolated variables
187
Token economy 3 stages
Assigning value to tokens Reinforcing target behaviour The trade
188
Extraversion
Refers to outgoing people who enjoy risk and danger because their nervous systems are underaroused
189
Consequences of culture bias
Becomes a tool of oppression Makes it difficult for psychologists to separate behaviour they have observed from context in which they observed it
190
Study for social exchange theory
Kurdek and Schmitt
191
Evaluation of genetic factors in explaining schizophrenia
Schizophrenia running in families may be more to do with common rearing patterns e.g. emotion family climate EE
MZ twins encounter more similar environments because they are treated more similarly and therefore environmental differences aren't apparent
Adoptive parents are informed of genetic background before adopting and therefore are less likely to adopt a child of a schizophrenic mother however people who do therefore have some type of motivation to help the child rather than the process being random
192
Self Disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
193
Evaluation of offender surveys
Self report is unreliable Criminals underplay criminal behaviour provides more personal data of crimes that were never found out about
194
Disorganised Speech
Result of abnormal thought processes jumbled up topics (derailment) and in extreme cases pure gibberish
195
Pharoah et al
family therapy Increased complience with medication, reduction in relapse rates
196
Evaluation of differential association theory
theory brought attention to social factors
Can only explain smaller community crimes rather than rape and murder
does not account for biological factors
197
Cultural Relativism
The idea that norms and values can only be meaningful and understood within the culture itself e.g. a person from a western culture cannot understand a Japanese culture unless they live it
198
Delusions
False beliefs e.g. being paranoid in nature
199
Reductionism Levels of explanation
Highest Level: cultural and social explanations Middle Level: Psychological explanations Lower Level: Biological explanations
200
Secure Base in attachment theory explaining Parasocial relationships
The presence of an attachment figure provides a sense if security for an individual a safe base to form other relationships because of little to no rejection
e.g. liking Michael Jackson and relating to his music as a source of comfort
201
Deviant Superego
Child identifies with an immoral parent. If parent is likely to be a criminal so will the child.
202
Berger
Found schizophrenics were more likely to have a higher recall of double blind statements
203
CBT Engagement
Therapist emphasises with patient about distress and stresses that it can be solved together
204
Stress inoculation model
Based on Novaco's Work Cognitive preparation Skill acquisition Application Training
205
Influence of culture on crime
Criminal behaviour varies from country to country e.g. have more than one wife is illegal in uk but not in all countries Laws change over time with new technology Legal age of responsibility is different in all countries
206
Proximity Seeking in attachment theory explaining Parasocial relationships
an individual will attempt to reduce the distance between themselves and another individual
e.g. Taylor Swift stalker breaking into her house and using her shower
207
Atypical Antipsychotics
Regulate dopamine but reduces positive and negative symptoms and have less side effects
208
Comparison level (social exchange theory)
takes into account past experiences of relationships to determine if we want to continue in current relationships. If profit is less then CL relationship will not succeed
209
Schizophrenia
severe disorder of thought and emotion associated with a loss of contact with reality
210
Negative Symptoms
symptoms of schizophrenia that are marked by deficits in functioning
211
Social Exchange theory
The likelihood of a person staying in a relationship is determined by an assessment of what they get out of a relationship vs what they put in
212
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
A combination of cognitive therapy (a way of changing maladaptive thoughts and beliefs) and behavioural therapy (a way of changing behaviour in response to these thoughts and beliefs)
213
Biological Determinism
The more we discover about genes the more it appears that our behaviours are determined by our genes
214
Born Criminals
people with atavistic characteristics
215
Psychoticism
Refers to people who are aggressive and anti social and lack empathy due to high levels of testosterone
216
Study for custodial sentencing
Amestry International
217
Evaluation of cognitive distortions
Applications to CBT to reduce cognitive distortions
Most criminals will downplay their crime to get out of thier sentence
218
Interactionist Approach to explaining schizophrenia
Explains schizophrenia through a combination of psychological and environmental and biological influences
219
Bowlby's thieve study
44 thieves attending clinic with 44 control patients he found no control patients had experienced early separation
89% of thieves who had experienced separation were affection less psychopaths
220
Examples of bottom up approaches
Investigative psychology Geographical Profiling
221
CBT The ABC Model
Patient give (A) Activating event That has causes the (B) Belief That causes a (C) consequence If the belief can be rationalised by discusses the activating event the consequence can be avoided
222
Neurotiscism
Refers to people who get upset easily and lack stability because they have an over reactive fight or flight response
223
Minimilsation
Consequences are either over or under exaggerated e.g. robbing a bank will not be that bad
224
Smallest space analysis
A computer program that identifies correlations across patterns of behaviour (investigative psychology)
225
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach in explaining criminality
Acknowledges emotion and childhood influence which approaches like the cognitive approach do not
Bowlby's finding are causal not related the emotion could be due to other things that happened at hime Real world application to preventing childhood separations
Alpha bias as freud believed women were less moral then men because they do not identify with there parents as strongly because of their lower status
Psychodynamic approach does not consider bad housing poverty or bad school attainment
226
Gestalt Psychology
a german psychological approach that emphasises that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts (Holism)
227
Evaluation of Determinism
allows cause and effect relationships to be found
it gives explanations for behaviour backed up with evidence
it is reductionist
does not account for individual differences
Suggests criminal activity is not criminals fault because it was determined
228
Evaluation of free will
Emphasises the importance of the individual and individual differences
it fits society's view of law i.e. if you commit a crime it is your fault self efficacy in therapy applications
Free will is very subjective
it is impossible to scientifically test free will
229
Evaluation of genetic explanations to explaining criminality
Genetics explain only aggressive behaviour but not all crime is aggressive
Very deterministic and reductionist
230
Evaluation of cognitive explanations in explaining schizophrenia
Success of CBT is proof that schizophrenia has a cognitive element
Cognitive approach ignored neurochemical element
231
Victim Surveys
A method of gathering crime data that directly surveys participants to determine their experiences as victims of crime.
232
Disorganised type of offender
The crime scene is left with many clues such as fingerprints there is little evidence of engagement with the victim the offender has a lower intelligence and competence
233
Evaluation of token economies and the management of schizophrenia
Studies tend to be uncontrolled so are hard to measure effectiveness
Only works in hospital setting and less effective in wider community as at home patients will only receive 2 3 hours a day
Ethical considerations as clinicians have control over food privacy and access to activities that stop boredom basic rights
234
Criminal Geographic Targeting (CGT)
A computerised system developed by Kim Rossmo which produces a 3d map and different colours indicate how close a criminal is to a crime scene (Geographical Profiling)
235
Entertainment Social
Fans are attracted to a favourite celebrity and will watch keep up with read and learn about that celebrity
236
Evaluation of the top down approach
Original data to create method came from interviewed with sexually dangerous motivated killers and therefore cannot be applied to other crime
Barnum effect ambiguous descriptions can be made to fit any situation
Disorganised / organised is more likely to be a continuous spectrum and is reductionist trying to fit an offender into one
237
Topics to use in gender bias questions
Alpha Bias in Freud's theories than women are less moral than men Beta bias in flight or fight reearch it is harder to measure female hormones because there are more of them so it is assumed men and female are equal Beta bias in Asch Zimbardo Milgram all male sample Beta Bias Kohlberg and moral development had an all male sample Mental illness in women is more likely to be explained in terms of emotional/hormonal processes
238
Grave Dressing Phase
the final phase in relationship termination when the partners try to present themselves to others as being trustworthy to keep their social credit intact for future use Individuals try to paint a picture of their partner to be worse than them
239
Commitment Level (investment model)
The likelihood that involvement in a relationship will persist It is determined by satisfaction level quality of alternatives and investment size If satisfaction and investment is high and QOA is low then relationship will percist
240
Study for reliability of classification
Rosenhan
241
Topics to use in nurture questions
Skinner and Pavlov classical and operant conditioning to explain learning Bandura's Social Learning Theory vicarious reinforcement. Agression may be biological but the learning was nurture Double blind theory in schizophrenia
242
Social Demography (filter Theory)
Variables such as age social background and geographical location will determine the likelihood of individuals meeting in the first place
243
Ways of measuring crime
Official statistics Victim surveys Offender surveys
244
Cognitive Distortion
Thinking that has a bias such that what is perceived by a person does not match reality
245
Evaluation of the investment model
difficult to measure other variables that lead to commitment
Investment model can explain why people stay in abusive relationships
Can explain all relationships
246
Evaluation of drug therapy in schizophrenia
Typical antipsychotics produce extrapyramidal effects on the brain e.g. lack of movement Ethical issues with side effects.
Drugs are cheap
Drugs are easy to use
Suggests something is wrong with someone
247
White Collar Crime
crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations
248
Evaluation of Anger Management
Some prisoners do not like to reflect on themselves
Drama based courses are more effective
Hard to make comparisons between methods as some last for a few days, but some will last for years
249
Application Training (Anger Management)
Offenders practice skills they have learned in controlled environments such as role play.
250
Diagnosing Schizophrenia
Clinician will use a manual such as the DSM Clinician will see if patient has two or more symptoms of schizophrenia and then can diagnose
251
Interpersonal Coherence
People are consistent in their behaviour and therefore it is easier to form links and relationships (investigative psychology)
252
Tyler and Novaco
6 meta analysis
Found 75% improvement in anger after anger management therapy
253
Weak Superego
Child has not identified with the same sex parent so has no moral code becomes selfish and aggressive. This could be due to absence of the same sex parent. The person has little control over antisocial behaviour and is likely to want to gratify its id
254
Evaluation of filter theory
filtering is there to stop people making the wrong choice and then having to live with the consequences
values and attitudes are constantly changing over time so how can they be similar?
255
Intrapsychic Phase
feelings of dissatisfaction cause the first phase in relationship termination when an individual engages in an internal evaluation of the partner They do not say anything to anyone
256
Neural Explanations of criminality (neurotransmitters)
Serotonin Noradrenaline
257
Reliability in diagnosing schizophrenia features
Cultural Differences Inter rater reliability
258
Anhedonia
A loss of interest of pleasure in all or almost all activities and a lack of reactivity to normally pleasurable stimuli
259
Nomothetic
Seeks to formulate general rules of behaviour based on study of groups and quantitative techniques
260
Circle Theory
Offenders commit crimes in an specific region and puts criminals into two categories Maruder Commuter (Geographical Profiling)
261
Quality of alternatives (investment Model)
The extent to which an individuals needs may be fulfilled outside the current relationship
262
preconventional morality
Child accepts the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences
263
grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior
Inability to complete a task or bizarre behaviours and a reduced reaction to enviroment
264
Offender Surveys
A means of measuring crime through surveys asking offenders of their drug use and how they victimised people. It can help find unreported crime and provides a more accurate picture of it.
265
Holism
Explains behaviour as a whole experience rather than trying to explain it through one reason
266
Cultural Bias
The tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of ones culture
267
Two psychological explanations of schizophrenia
Family Dysfunction Cognitive Explanations
268
Hard Determinism
All behaviour can be predicted and there is no free will
269
Evaluation of defining crime
There are some crimes that are universally regarded as unacceptable by all countries e.g. murder and theft
In universal crimes there are still cultural variations e.g. killing someone there is homicide or manslaughter and manslaughter will give a more lenient sentence
270
Evaluation of family therapy
less to do with improvements but increases medical compliance which makes it look like they are improving
economic benefits cost of family therapy is offset by reduction in relapse rates
271
Confidentiality in SSR
How leaked data may affect participants life
272
Features of social exchange theory
Profit and Loss Comparison Level Comparison Level of Alternatives
273
Cost/benefit analysis SSR
If costs of research outweigh benefits it is unethical however this is hard to access accurately
274
Complementarity of needs (filter theory)
People who have different needs like each other because they provide each other with mutual satisfaction. This is what makes a long term relationship.
275
Revised Dopamine Hypothesis
Davis and Kahn proposed that positive symptoms of schizophrenia are caused by an excess of dopamine in subcortical areas of the brain particularly the mesolimbic pathway. Negative symptoms arise from a deficit of dopamine in areas of the prefrontal cortex there is some evidence:
276
CBT Developing Alternative explanations
Patient develops own alternative explanations for previous unhealthy assumptions
277
Copson
90% of police said they would use bottom up again
278
dark figure of crime
Crime that is not reported to the police and that remains unknown to officials.
279
Why the nomothetic approach uses quantitative methods
Statistics are useful for calculations on groups of people therefore numerical data must be collected
280
Resurrection Phase
Another phases added later for a opportunity for self growth.
281
Goring
Compared 300 convicts to 3000 non convicts and found no difference
282
Equity Theory
a theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that what they put into a relationship is equal to what they get out
283
Universality
Not ignoring gender bias fully because there are differences between men and women but still not taking one gender as superior
284
Study for criminal token economy
Hobbs and Holt
285
Cognitive preparation (Anger Management)
Offenders learn about anger generally how it can be both adaptive and nonadaptive. Offenders analyse own behaviour patterns and identify situations which provoke them
286
Study for family therapy
Pharoah et al
287
Regulation of arousal
Anger Management technique used to allow offender to learn to control the physiological state. (Novaco)
288
Application in SSR
Findings may not be used for purpose intended
289
Self Disclosure and virtual relationships
The anonymity of the internet reduces the risks of rejection that self disclosure can bring. It is similar to the strangers of a train phenomena
290
Double Blind Theory in family dysfunction and schizophrenia
When a child receives conflicting messages from parents they are more likely to develop schizophrenia This conflicting messages prevent the correct development of a coherent construction of reality which in the future manifests itself as schizophrenic symptoms
291
Peace Circles
Groups in communities where victims and offenders alike can come to enable mutual understanding
292
Study for gentic offender
Brunner et al
293
Conventional morality
Individuals believe conformity to social rules is desirable because maintaining social systems ensures positive social order which is desirable
294
Determinism
Human behaviour is caused by factors not under an individual's personal control
295
Moral Reasoning link to offending behaviour
Most criminals are at pre conventional who feel crime is justified as long as they don't get caught
296
Topics to use for holism questions
Gestalt psychology Humanistic psychology Cognitive psychology Jahoda's criteria
297
Study for differential association theory
Osborne and west
298
Borderline Pathological
Strongest Uncontrollable fantasies Extreme behaviour about celebrities
299
How it is learned in differential association theory?
frequency length and personal meaning of social association will determine the degree of influence It can be learnt through operant conditioning praise or punishment for crime It can be learnt through vicarious reinforcement of role models in the community
300
Study for filter theory
Kerckoff and Davis
301
postconventional morality
Individuals move beyond the conventional rules of their community to focus more broadly on what is best for society at large and on ways of promoting justice in society.
302
Culture
Beliefs customs and traditions of a specific group of people that binds them together
303
Somatotypes
Criminal classification of body type
304
token economy
a form of behaviour therapy in which clients are given "tokens" for desired behaviours which they can later trade for rewards
305
Psychological Effects of custodial sentencing
De individualisation Depression self harm and suicide Overcrowding and lack of privacy Effects on offenders family
306
Key Aim of Anger Management
Novaco
| Cognitive Restructring Regulation of Arousal Behavioural Strategies
307
What attachment style do people have to be more likely to develop a parasocial relationship?
Insecure Avoidant Characterised by fear of people not reciprocating their needs therefore a parasocial relationship can satisfy this as there is little to no chance of rejection
308
Olfactory Hallucination example
Smelling something that others cannot
309
Evaluation of culture bias
indigenous psychology emic vs etic
considerable amount of psychology is based on western middle class psychology students as they are the ones participating in the lecturers studies
More people travel than they did 50 years ago meaning they have an understanding of cultures at a personal and professional level
310
Negative Symptoms of schizophrenia
Speech Poverty Avolition Affective Flattening Anhedonia
311
Atavistic Form
biological approach suggesting criminals are more primitive due to physical characteristics and personality
312
Genetic Explanations of criminal behaviour
low levels of MAOA activity and CDH13 activity
Diathesis Stress model
313
Study for criminal psychodynamic
Bowlby's Juvenile thieves
314
Evaluation of The dopamine hypothesis in explaining schizophrenia
some cases where dopamine levels are normal but there are still schizophrenic episodes
Inconclusive post mortem brain dopamine concentration evidence
Cocaine and other stimulant drugs cause schizophrenic episodes
315
Speech Poverty
Lessening of speech fluency and productivity to reflect slowing or blocked thoughts
316
Evaluation of reliability in diagnosing schizophrenia
For diagnosis one characteristic in the DSM is "If delusions are bizarre" however what differentiates bizarre and non bizarre?
ethnic minority cultures experience less stress because of their positive social structures making their prognosis more positive
317
Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.
318
Recidivism
When a person reoffends after receiving a form of punishment for previous offences
319
Evaluation of level of moral reasoning
theory concerns thinking rather than behaviour
Kohlberg's research was only on males so gender bias
Applications to encouraging moral development e.g. raising a child in democracy rather than a dictatorship
320
Environmental Reductionism
Behaviour is explained through stimulus response links a relationship between behaviour and events
321
Evaluations of neural explanations to explaining criminality
deterministic and reductionists
Applications to treatment e.g. if criminals had low levels of serotonin they can be given sweeteners which are high in phenylalanine which make the production of serotonin difficult
322
Investment size (investment Model)
A measure of all resources that are attached to a relationship and would be lost if relationship ends
323
Expressed Emotion in family dysfunction and schizophrenia
A family communication style where members of the family talk about patient in a hostile manner Family members with high EE talk more and listen less Patients with families with high EE are 4 more times likely to relapse This suggests people with schizophrenia have a lower tolerance for intense environmental stimuli
324
Scientific Freedom in SSR
Science should not be censored but there should be some monitoring of sensitive research
325
Cognitive Restructring
Anger Management technique used to allow offender to control cognitive dimensions of anger and gain greater self awareness (Novaco)
326
Positive Symptoms of schizophrenia
Hallucinations Delusions Disorganised Speech Grossly Disorganised or Catatonic Behaviour
327
Victim's perspective (aims of restorative justice)
Can reduce the sense of victimisation because they are no longer powerless and have a voice and may grow to understand the offender
328
Kerckoff and Davis
longitudinal study of 94 dating couples which completed two questionnaire on SIA and CON
For short term relationships SIA was more important, for long term relationships CON was more important
329
Levels of moral reasoning
preconventional
| conventional postconventional
330
Atonement for wrongdoing (aims of restorative justice)
Offenders may offer concrete compensation for the crime such as money or community work. The psychological process of guilt allows offender to show an understanding of their effects
331
Retribution
Prison is used to atone for wrongdoing and allow victims to have closure
332
Androcentrism
An outlook that emphasizes a masculine point of view.
333
Integrated model of schizoprenia
early vulnerable factors (genes birth complications) significant social stressors and sensitises to the dopamine system all contribute to schizophrenia
334
Forensic Awareness
Certain behaviour may reveal and awareness of particular police techniques and past experiences e.g. Davies et al found rapists who conceal their fingerprints had previous convictions of burglary (investigative psychology)
335
Institutional sexism
Men predominate at senior research level therefore research agenda follows male concerns
336
Joseph
concordance rates were higher for MZ twins
337
Imposed etics
where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another
338
Evaluation of Nature
Bowbly did not ignore environmental influences e.g. he proposed infants attach to who is most sensitive to their needs just that attachment is innate
Transgressional Effect if a pregnant mother has a poor diet her baby will suffer development and thus the genes will be poor so nature caused nurture?
339
Self disclousure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
340
The research process in SSR
Question Conduct of research Context Application
341
The nature of family therapy
3 to 12 months reducing levels of expressed emotion provides information about schizophrenia to patients improves relationships within the household
342
Study for criminal cognitive distortions
Kennedy and Grubin
343
Topics to use for reductionist questions
Bio Drug therapy Classical and operant conditioning in attachement
344
Evaluation of Nurture
Empirical evidence shows behaviour is learnt
However learning is also biological research has found that mutant flies missing a crucial gene cannot be conditioned
345
Scientific Determinism
Emphasis on the belief of casual explanations
346
Deterrence
Prison is used as an deterrent for crime
347
Reducing Culture bias
Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid culture bias and racism but we may be swapping old overt racism from new subtle racism
348
Study for CBT schiz
NICE
349
Holism and cognitive psychology
Memory is understood as connectionist networks of neurons It is holistic because the network as a whole behaves differently than the individual parts
350
Official Statistics
Government generated secondary source of data on crime
351
Amesty International
Murder rates were not lower in states with death penelty
352
Athletic
A category proposed by lombroso that describes criminals that are tall and muscular are criminals of violence
353
Crossley et al
No difference in symptoms but less side effects of atypical
354
NICE
CBT was effective in reducing rehospitalisation rates up to 18 months
355
Evaluation of physical attractiveness
A person can compensate lack of physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities
Physical attractiveness plays a stronger role in men's long term relationship satisfaction than women's
Darwin Peacock tail
356
Sound and valid methodology in SSR
You must have valid methodology as academics may detect flaws in research but the public and media will take them as facts
357
Beta bias in culture
when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised and all people are assumed to be the same resulting in universal research designs and conclusions that mistakenly assume that all cultures are the same.
358
Investigative psychology
Profiling is based on scientific research and psychological theory (bottom up)
359
Topics to use in an idiographic question
Sigmund freud psychodynamic case studies of little Hans 150 page write up on his life Humanistic Psychology to study the whole person Personality Gordon Allport found over 18 000 separate terms for describing personal characteristics which are unique to most people
360
Study for criminal personality
Chen and Howitt
361
Idographic
Focuses on the individual and emphasises uniqueness and favours qualitative data
362
Study for anger management
Tyler and Novaco
363
Topics to use in determinism questions
(Chroney et al) High IQ related to the IGF2R gene Freuds Research Skinner and Pavlov Research
364
Walster et al
Students matched other students on looks and paired them, it did not support matching hypothesis
365
Reinforcing target behaviour (token economies)
When patient or criminal performs target behaviour they can be awarded tokens
366
Emic and Etic
Emic describes the uniqueness of every culture by focusing on culturally specific phenomena Etic seeks universality for all behaviour
367
Virtual Relationships
Relationships that are conducted through the internet rather than face to face
368
Why the idiographic approach uses qualitative methods
Focus on gaining insights into human behaviour by studying unique individuals in depth rather than gaining numerical from many individuals and determining adverages
369
Example of expressed emotion in family dysfunction
A schizophrenic hallucinates and a family member is angry at them for not paying attention to what they are sayinh
370
Family Therapy
Therapy that is used as treatment to intervene the family of someone who has a mental disorder
371
Conduct of research in SSR
The main concern here is confidentiality if someone confesses to a crime should that be kept a secret?
372
Indigenous Psychologies
The development of different groups of theories in different countries e.g. Afrocentrism in africa
373
Evaluation of virtual relationships
Digital selves can enhance an individuals overall image in real life as it may increase there chance to connect in real life (catfishing)
Virtual relationships are helpful for shy people
Relationships are less strong
374
Visual Hallucination example
Seeing faces others cannot see
375
Evaluation of validity in diagnosing schizophrenia
The nature of diagnosis of disorders means patients receive a lower standard of medical care which in turn increases chances of co morbility
Diagnosis has little predictive validity some people recover some do not
376
Le and Agnew
Analysed data from 137 studies
Commitment was the key factor for staying in relationships
377
Socially Sensitive Research Evaluation
There is a wider impact of research participants family co workers the group the participant represents
Present ethical guidelines do not protect participants after the study has been completed
Minority groups are often marginalised from research
Do psychologists have a duty to research SS topics?
SSR is the most scrutinised research therefore not a lot can get past the barrier that is bad
Psychologists have methods to resolve issues raised
By gaining a better understanding of SS material we can reduce prejudice
Can benefit society e.g. research on EWT
90% of research is carried out on white middle class Americans SSR is helping redress the balance
378
Who created the bottom up approach
David Canter did all accept CGT which was Kim Rossmo
379
Study for Antipyschotics
Crossley et al
380
Stress Schizophrenia
Stress also contributes to schizophrenia. This is one reason why it's especially prevalent among people with low socioeconomic status. Social and psychological risk factors Life stressors
381
Hobbs and Holt
Staff given training, 125 delinquent males observed in four cottages, one cottage was a control and the other 3 experimental.
Increase in social behaviour was seen in experimental and no change in control
382
Neural Correlates and the dopamine hypothesis
Excess dopamine neurotransmitter in the brain is associated with positive symptoms of schizophrenia Schizophrenics are thought to have abnormal high D2 receptors resulting in more dopamine binding and more neurons firing
383
The values of social Scientists
Humanistic approach (life is important and individuals are important) vs the scientific approach (objectivity and rigorous methodology)
384
Environmental Determinism
Behaviour is caused by previous experience through classical and operant conditioning
385
Rehabilitation of offenders (aims of restorative justice)
The victim has the opportunity to explain the real impact of the crime and this enables the offender to understand the effects on the victim
386
Affective Flattening
A reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression
