AR101 Exam Two

Question 1

archaeozoology

Answer 1

involves the identification and analysis of faunal species from archaeological sites, as an aid to the reconstruction of human diets and to an understanding of the contemporary environment at the time of deposition

Question 2

australopithecus

Answer 2

a collective name for the earliest known hominids emerging about 5 million years ago in East Africa

Question 3

context

Answer 3

usually consists of an artifact’s immediate matrix (the material around it e.g. gravel, clay or sand), its provenience (horizontal and vertical position in the matrix), and its association with other artifacts (with other archaeological remains, usually in the same matrix

Question 4

coprolites

Answer 4

fossilized feces; contain food residues that can be used to reconstruct diet and subsistence activities

Question 5

deep sea cores

Answer 5

drilled from the sea bed, provide the most coherent record of climate changes on a worldwide scale; contain shells of microscopic marine organisms (forminifera) laid down on the ocean floor through the continuous process of sedimentation. Variation in the ratio of two oxygen isotopes in the calcium carbonate of these shells give a sensitive indicator of sea temperature at the time the organisms were alive

Question 6

diatom analysis

Answer 6

a method of environmental reconstruction based on plant microfossils; unicellular algae whose silica cell walls survive after the algae die, adn they accumulate in large numbers at the bottom of rivers and lakes. Assemblages directly reflect the floristic composition of the water’s extinct communities, as well as the water’s salinity, alkalinity, and nutrient status

Question 7

diatoms

Answer 7

found in lake and shore sediments and thus useful for the analysis of past marine environments

Question 8

domestication of wild plant species

Answer 8

various techniques can help to answer the crucial question of whether plant remains found in the archaeological record are from wild or domesticated species

Question 9

flotations

Answer 9

a method of screening (sieving) excavated matrix in water so as to separate and recover small ecofacts and artifacts

Question 10

ice cores

Answer 10

borings taken from the arctic and anarctic polar ice caps, containing layers of compacted ice useful for reconstructing paleoenvironments and as a method of absolute dating

Question 11

information from animal resources

Answer 11

animal remains are often well-preserved on archaeological sites. It’s important to establish whether animal remains are present ona site through human agency or through other causes. We can sex and age animal bones, study their seasonality, and deduce whether the animals were wild or domesticated, all of which helps us to understand how humans were exploiting the animal environment

Question 12

isotopic analysis

Answer 12

an important source of information on the reconstruction of prehistoric diets, this technique analyzes the ratios of the principal isiotopes preserved in human bone; in effect the method reads the chemical signatures left in the body by different foods; also used in characterization studies

Question 13

macrobotanical remains

Answer 13

seeds and fruits, plant residues, wood; can give a good idea of what plants were present at a site, but there are problems of quantification and interpretation. It’s important to understand how a plant might have been processed and used

Question 14

microbotanical remains

Answer 14

pollen, phytoliths, diatoms

Question 15

microfauna

Answer 15

better indicators of climate and environmental change than macrofauna because they are much more sensitive to small variations in climate and adapt to them relatively quickly; tend to accumulate naturally on a site and refelct the immediate environment more accurately than the larger animals whose remains are often accumulated through human or animal predation

Question 16

microwear analysis

Answer 16

the study of the patterns of wear or damage on the edge of stone tools, which provides valuable information on the way in which the tool was used

Question 17

paleoethnobotany

Answer 17

the recovery and identification of plant remains from archaeological contextgs, used in reconstructing past environments and economies

Question 18

paleoentomology

Answer 18

the study of insects from archaeological contexts. the survival of insect exoskeletons, which are quite resistant to decompositions, is important in the reconstruction of paleoenvironments

Question 19

paleomagnetism

Answer 19

based on the fact that changes in the earth’s magnetic field over time can be recorded as remnant magnetism in materials such as baked clay structures (ovens, kilns, and hearths)

Question 20

palynology

Answer 20

the study and analysis of fossil pollen as an aid to the reconstruction of past vegetation and climates

Question 21

phytoliths

Answer 21

minute particles of silica in plant cells which survive after the rest of the plant has decomposed; some are specific to certain parts of the plant; survive very well in most archaeological sediments and can add to the picture of the environment built up from other sources

Question 22

plant residues on artifacts

Answer 22

chemical traces of plants can be found on some artifacts (often pots and tools) and these can be tested and compared against a reference collection in order to identify a species

Question 23

plant residues

Answer 23

can give some idea of what species were available

Question 24

pollen

Answer 24

most useful for the study of minor fluctuations in climate over the last 12,000 years though can be preserved for millions of years in some contexts

Question 25

seeds and fruits

Answer 25

can usually be identified to species, but interpretation can be difficult since they can be brought in to a site from elsewhere

Question 26

wood

Answer 26

charcoal survives well in the archaeological record, and can be identified to species, but what is found tends to reflect human selection of wood rather than the full range of species growing around a site

Question 27

band

Answer 27

a term used to describe small-scale societies of hunters and gatherers, generally less than 100 people, who move seasonally to exploit wild (undomesticated) food resources. Kinship ties play an important part in social organization

Question 28

burial analysis

Answer 28

rank and social status are best revealed by the analysis of grave-goods within individual burials

Question 29

chiefdom

Answer 29

a term used to describe a society that operates on the principle of ranking, i.e. differential social status. different lineages are graded on a scale of prestige, calculated by how closely related one is to the chief; generally has a permanent ritual and ceremonial center, as well as being characterized by local specialization in crafts

Question 30

cultural anthropology

Answer 30

a subdiscipline of anthropology concerned with the non-biological, behavioral aspects of society; i.e. the social, linguistic, and technological components underlying human behavior. Two important branches: ethnography (the study of living cultures) and ethnology (which attempts to compare cultures using ethnographic evidence).

Question 31

ethnicity

Answer 31

the existence of ethnic groups, including tribal groups; difficult to recognize from the archaeological record, study of language and linguistic boundaries shows that often correlated with language areas

Question 32

ethnoarchaeology

Answer 32

the study of contemporary cultures with a view to understanding the behavioral relationships which underlie the production of material culture

Question 33

ethnography

Answer 33

a subset of cultural anthropology concerned with the study of contemporary cultures through first-hand observation

Question 34

hominins

Answer 34

the subfamily to which humans belong, as opposed to the "hominids" which include not only humans but also gorillas and chimps, and "hominoids" which group these with gibbons and orangutans

Question 35

lineages

Answer 35

a group claiming descent from a common ancestor

Question 36

material culture

Answer 36

the buildings, tools, and other artifacts that constitute the material remains of former societies

Question 37

monuments and public works

Answer 37

scale and distribution can be a good indicator of social organization

Question 38

obsidian

Answer 38

a volcanic glass whose ease of working and characteristically hard flint-like edges allowed it to be used for the making of tools

Question 39

prehistory

Answer 39

the period of human history before the advent of writing

Question 40

redistribution

Answer 40

a mode of exchange which implies the operation of some central organizing authority; goods are received or appropriated by the central authority, and subsequently some of them are sent by that authority to other locations

Question 41

religion

Answer 41

a freamework of beliefs relating to supernatural or superhuman beings or forces that transcend the everyday material world

Question 42

segmentary societies

Answer 42

relatively small and autonomous groups, usually of agriculturalists, who regulate their own affairs; in some cases, they may join together with other comparable societies to form a larger ethnic unit

Question 43

settlement analysis

Answer 43

the main method of investigating past social organization; data are collected by survey and excavation, but the specific methods used can vary greatly depending on the society in question

Question 44

stelae

Answer 44

a free-standing carved stone monument

Question 45

tribes

Answer 45

a term used to describe a social grouping generally larger than a band, but rarely numbering more than a few thousand; unlike bands, usually settled by farmers, though they also include nomadic pastoral groups whose economy is based on exploitation of livestock. Individual communities tend to be integrated into the larger society through kinship ties

Question 46

written records

Answer 46

an excellent source of information about the organization of early state societies

Question 47

alloying

Answer 47

technique involving the mixing of two or more metals to create a new material, e.g. the fusion of copper and tin to make bronze

Question 48

annealing

Answer 48

in copper and bronze metallurgy, this refers to the repeated process of heating and hammering the material to produce the desired shape

Question 49

artifacts made from synthetic materials

Answer 49

many of the developments in pottery and metalworking technology can be linked to developments in pyrotechnology pottery: very hard-wearing and potsherds are common on archaeological sites. can learn through simple observation how pottery was made (either by hand or on wheel) and through experiment and ethnographic studies how it was fired metals: we can identify what metal or combination of metals an artifact is made from with simple lab techniques; examination of the microscopic structure of the metal can give clues as to how an artifact was manufactured Sourcing: why? attribute to a specific people --> their technologies/ resources, how society organized.

Question 50

artifacts made from unaltered materials

Answer 50

stone: archaeological record dominated by stone artifacts. combination of archaeological investigation, modern experimentation, and ethnographic observation can tell great deal about how stone artifacts were made and used wood: does not survive well, apart from in very dry or waterlogged conditions, but was almost certainly as important a resource as stone plant and animal fibers: containers, fabrics and cords would also have been common objects in the past, but rarely survive in archaeological record other: bone, antler, shell, and leather often found by archaeologists, but must be careful to establish whether object is humanly made v. created by natural processes

Question 51

characterization

Answer 51

application of techniques of examination by which characteristic properties of the constituent material of traded goods can be identified, and thus their source of origin

Question 52

core

Answer 52

lithic artifact used as a blank from which other tools or flakes are made

Question 53

experimental archaeology

Answer 53

study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstruction under carefully controlled scientific conditions

Question 54

fall-off analysis

Answer 54

the study of regularities in the way in which quantities of traded items found in the archaeological record decline as the distance from the source increases; may be plotted as a curve with quantities of the material (y axis) plotted against distance from source (x axis)

Question 55

hand-axe

Answer 55

a paleolithic stone tool usually made by modifying (chipping or flaking) a natural pebble

Question 56

interaction spheres

Answer 56

a regional or inter-regional exchange system, e.g. the Hopewell interaction sphere

Question 57

metallographic examination

Answer 57

a technique used in the study of early metallurgy involving the microscopic examination of a polished section cut from an artifact, which has been etched so as to reveal the metal structure

Question 58

pyrotechnology

Answer 58

the intentional use and control of fire by humans

Question 59

reciprocal

Answer 59

a mode of exchange in which transactions take place between individuals who are symmetrically placed, i.e. they are exchanging as equals, neither being in a dominant position

Question 60

refitting

Answer 60

sometimes referred to as conjoining; entails attempting to put stone tools and flakes back together again, and provides important information on the processes involved in the knapper's craft

Question 61

temper

Answer 61

inclusions in pottery clay which act as a filler to give the clay added strength and workability and to counteract any cracking or shrinking during firing

Question 62

thin-section analysis

Answer 62

a technique whereby microscopic thin sections are cut from a stone object or potsherd and examined with a petrological microscope to determine the source of the material

Question 63

trace element analysis

Answer 63

the use of chemical techniques for determining the incidence of trace elements in rocks; methods are widely used in the identification of raw material sources for the production of stone tools

Question 64

principal aims of archaeology

Answer 64

to recreate the lives of people who produced the archaeological record

Question 65

bioarchaeology

Answer 65

the study of human remains (but in the Old World it is sometimes applied to other kinds of organic remains such as animal bones)

Question 66

assessing human physical attributes

Answer 66

sex: intact bodies can be sexed from the genitalia; skeletons and bone remains, much more common in archaeological record, are sexed from size and form differences between male and female bones; children are difficult to sex age: main methods of establishing the age of a skeleton are by examinations of the growth patterns of bones and teeth and of bone microstructure appearance: it is now possible to make accurate facial reconstructions of ancient individuals, as long as their skull or fragments of it survive relationships: examinations of skull shape hair type, teeth, and blood group can help to establish whether two individuals were related

Question 67

hunter gatherer societies

Answer 67

< 100 people | egalitarian, shamans, temporary settlements, informal leadership

Question 68

segmentary societies

Answer 68

up to 1,000 people | settled farmers, pastoral leaders

Question 69

chiefdom

Answer 69

5,000 to 20,000 people family, kinship, redistribution of wealth, craft specialization *located around central temple, large scale monuments

Question 70

state

Answer 70

``` 20,000+ people greater specialization, class based hierarchy under leader, pay taxes, have bureaucracy, cities, roads, towns ```

Question 71

South American agriculture

Answer 71

beans, squash, chilis, avocados

Question 72

seed genius theory

Answer 72

someone put a seed in the ground and trees popped up out of nowhere. that guy told everyone else the secret

Question 73

Analyzing diet and agriculture

Answer 73

process sediments, use morphological comparison grinding stone residues to find starches can do analysis on teeth of skeleton; starch grains trapped in plaque

Question 74

wolf's law

Answer 74

when you stress bones they grow more bones

Question 75

ways to observe global climate change

Answer 75

oxygen isotope ratios in ice cores: - warm: more O16 - cold: more O18 marine cores: - warm: more O18 on shells - cold: more O16 on shells

Question 76

ways to observe regional climate change

Answer 76

growth lines of speleothems that goes through bed rock dendrochronology: thick rings, more water. thin rings, dry season/ stress lake cores: pollen lasts in waterlogged environments

Question 77

why do we look at climate?

Answer 77

shows if it was good for survival, about the human behaviors

Question 78

micromorphology and geomorphology

Answer 78

study of sediments (freezing & thawing, arid, cold, etc)

Question 79

eridisoils

Answer 79

dependent upon precipitations: gypsum (sparkly needles)

Question 80

speleothems

Answer 80

cave deposits like stalagmites, stalactites

Question 81

Vavilov’s centers of domestication

Answer 81

1) Mexico/ Central America 2) South America 3) Mediterranean 4) Middle East 5) Ethiopia 6) Central Asia 7) Indo-Burma 8) China, Korea * barley, rice

Question 82

domestication

Answer 82

biological process that involves changes in the genotype and physical characteristics of plants and animals as they become dependent on humans for reproductive success

Question 83

cultivation

Answer 83

cultural phenomenon that involves intentionally preparing fields, sowing, harvesting, also herding

Question 84

agriculture

Answer 84

a commitment to relationship with plants and / or animals, ultimately involves changes in human-environment interaction and organization of human society

Question 85

Tripartite hypothesis (sweet potato)

Answer 85

kumara lineage from west coast of South America introduced to Eastern Polynesia by voyagers camote lineage from Mesoamerica introduced by Spanish galleons sailing between the Philippines and Mexico batata lineage from Caribbean introduced by Portuguese traders via Europe

Question 86

silification of plant tissues

Answer 86

leaves, bark, rinds, husks, and fruits provides structural support as well as defense against herbivores and pathogenic fungi; extremely durable except in conditions of high pH (above 9) don't do well in alkaline soils

Question 87

starch grains

Answer 87

find reserve starch stored in roots, tubers, seeds, fruit, etc can preserve in soils, although humid tropical soils pose problems; preserve well in microcrevices of artifacts and dental calculus (pots, stone tools, plaque, etc)

Question 88

identifying sex

Answer 88

examine width of pelvis, size of mandables

Question 89

identifying arthritis

Answer 89

scrunched bones

Question 90

identifying overall health and diseases

Answer 90

examine skull

Question 91

identifying nutritional stress/ diet

Answer 91

examine teeth

Question 92

evolution of pelvis

Answer 92

widening and shortening of ilium for becoming bipedal

Question 93

posterior/ dorsal

Answer 93

behind

Question 94

anterior/ ventral

Answer 94

front

Question 95

superior/ cranial

Answer 95

upper half of body

Question 96

inferior/ caudal

Answer 96

lower half of body

Question 97

information deduced from skull

Answer 97

``` brain size and organization senses language diet locomotion phylogenetics sex ```

Question 98

identifiers of female pelvis

Answer 98

larger birth canal wider sciatic notch wider subpubic arch width * a pelvis that displays male traits is definitely male but a pelvis that displays female traits may also be male.

Question 99

dental hypoplasia

Answer 99

striations in enamel, indicator of nutritional stress and diet

Question 100

intentional holes in skull

Answer 100

rounded: additional bone growth, meaning it had healed. surgical procedure to alleviate pressure of brain from swelling (trapination)