arcl midterm Flashcards

Question

describe the scientific method

Answer 1

Define a relevant problem Establish one or more hypotheses Determine the empirical implications of the hypotheses Collect appropriate data Test the hypothesis by comparing these data with the expected implications Reject, revise, and/or restest hypotheses as necessary

Answer 2

working from specific observations towards more general hypotheses a bottom-up approach (data - patterns and analysis - conclusions) Inductive reasoning takes you from the specific to the general,

Answer 3

reasoning from theory to account for specific observational or experimental results top-down (theory - data - conclusion) you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions

Answer 4

Data and obersvations Observations and interpretations that emerge from hands-on archaeological field and lab work Begins with archaeological objects and generates relevant facts or data about those objects Data: relevant observations made on objects that then serve as the basis for study and discussion Survey, excavation

Answer 5

Behaviour Links arch observations with the human behaviour or natural processes that produced them Moves past the observable to invisible, or relevant, human behaviours or natural processes of the past Observations of ongoing human behaviour or natural processes OR Evidence of the material results of that behaviour or those processes Ethnoarchaeology, experimental archaeology, taphonomy

Answer 6

Why Seeks to answer large why questions Applies inquiry about the human condition Paradigms: overarching frameworks, often unstated for understanding a research problem Reconstructions of the past using both low and medium level theory

Answer 7

The study of contemporary cultures with a view to understand the behavioral relationships that underlie the production of material culture processualist, middle level The ethnographic study of living cultures from archaeological perspectives Distinct from ethnography Designed as an effort to rationalize and systematize the use of analogy in archaeology Applying observed behaviour to non-obserbed behaviour Universal models downplay historical contingency and cultural specificities Prone to assumption that all tech knowledge is explicit and can be elicited from any practitioner of tech Assumes similarity

Answer 8

The study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstructions under carefully controlled scientific conditions - Scientific method, middle level theory The fabrication of materials, behaviors or both in order to observe one or more processes involved in production, use, discard, and deterioration of material culture - Examining craft techniques and the traces of usage on tools and materials Retracing the correlations between events, techniques, and everyday life in the past - Conducting scientific, methodologically designed studies in which the size of the variables can be altered and empirical data and information can be gained - Formulation of research questions, design of an experimental setup, measurements, documentation, and repetition of the experiments -is NOT: reenactment groups, outdoor education, public presentations etc. (experiential NOT experimental)

Answer 9

non-artifactual organic and environmental remains that have cultural relevance reconstruct diets and environments Examples: pollen, animal bones, coprolites, Items that have been subjected to human modification still count (or could be artifacts)

Answer 10

any portable object used, modified, or made by humans (belongings) Belongings: reinforces ongoing connection FNs have to both the place and the things taken from them Connects the intangible with the tangible References a different sense of ownership Examples: arrowheads, pottery, harpoons, baskets

Answer 11

a non-portable human-made remains that cannot be removed from their place of discovery without altering or destroying their original form A non-portable artifact Examples: graves, structures, hearths, cave paintings, postholes, middens

Answer 12

skeletal remains of humans and their ancestors Reconstruct age, sex, diet, health, etc. Human/ancestor burials may also be considered features

Answer 13

a distinct spatial clustering of artifacts, features, structures, and organic and enviro remains The residue of human activity

Answer 14

areas which exhibit a degree of cultural homogeneity in a particular period Some things can fall into multiple categories

Answer 15

literally where we find something and what is next to it An artifacts context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it ex. Gravel, clay, sand, etc.) Its provenience: horizontal and vertical position in space; and it’s Association: with other artifacts or arch remains, usually within the same matrix in archaeology: The physical location in which artifacts and features are found and the relationships they have with each other Also the circumstances of deposition that allow inferences about behavioral significance

Answer 16

literally where we find something and what is next to it An artifacts context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it ex. Gravel, clay, sand, etc.) Its provenience: horizontal and vertical position in space; and it’s Association: with other artifacts or arch remains, usually within the same matrix in archaeology: The physical location in which artifacts and features are found and the relationships they have with each other Also the circumstances of deposition that allow inferences about behavioral significance

Answer 17

literally where we find something and what is next to it An artifacts context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it ex. Gravel, clay, sand, etc.) Its provenience: horizontal and vertical position in space; and it’s Association: with other artifacts or arch remains, usually within the same matrix in archaeology: The physical location in which artifacts and features are found and the relationships they have with each other Also the circumstances of deposition that allow inferences about behavioral significance

Answer 18

Various possible spatial contests and associations for a projectile point How might one interpret the behavior in each context Primary context: deposits undisturbed since original deposition (in situ); data reflects behavioral processes Ex. pompeii Secondary context: deposits disturbed by subsequent human activity or natural phenomena Data altered wholly or partially by transformational processes Ex. partially looted sites

Answer 19

the ways in which human behaviours and natural actions operate to produce the archaeological record

Answer 20

involve the deliberate or accidental activities of human beings as they make or use artifacts, build or abandon buildings, plough their fields, and so on Depositional processes: The human behaviors by which artifacts enter the arch record Life cycle of an artifact: Acquisition of materials, Manufacture, Use and distribution, Disposal or discard, Reuse and reclamation:

Answer 21

natural events that govern both the burial and the survival of the archaeological record Examples: vegetative growth, sedimentation, weathering/errosion, flooding, earthquakes, fires, volcanoes, mudslides

Answer 22

using airborne or spaceborne remote sensing to detect human activities (sites, features) Assess topography: shape, elevation

Answer 23

light detection and return Infrared scan of ground from plane, drone, satellite, handheld Signal return creates a 3D version of the earth’s surface Longest return signal sees beneath vegetation High accuracy; enhances topography Especially helpful in heavily vegetated areas (ex jungle)

Answer 24

Unsystematic survey: feilldwalking - randomly scanning an area on food Systematic survey: grid system - pedestrian survey of area using carefully laid out grid systems or transects, recording artifacts/features Non-collection survey: surface survey in which artifacts locations are recorded by sensitives GPS instruments and data gathered only in the field Reburial movement (new thing)

Answer 25

Sample as little as possible to fulfill the research question (ethics/cost) Sample size depends on population geterogeneity/research purpose Sample form (location) depends on sampling strategy Random: goal is representation Judgemental: goal is a known target Systematic: being thorough Stratified: mixed

Answer 26

Use of non destructive techniques to find and map subsurface structures Metal detecting GPR Magnetometry

Answer 27

Ground Penetrating Radar: Electromagnetic radar pulses (radio waves) image the subsurface by detecting the reflected signals from subsurface structures Create images of the subsurface by detecting the reflected signals from subsurface structures Requires lots of computation; we know something is down there, but don’t know what necessarily

Answer 28

Records spatial variation in the earth’s magnetic field Reacts strongly to iron, steel, brick, burned soil (and more)

Answer 29

Sites are non-renewable resources Archs carefully consider where and how much to excavate Only suitable for some sites (ex. Sites that are to be built upon) Systematic uncovering of remains through removal of soil deposits, and other material covering and accompanying them Excavation yields evidence of contemporary activities and changes through time

Answer 30

Exploratory: shovel test, judgemental or systematic, levels Site identification: test, vertical, random, levels Developments over time: vertical, judgemental, layers Site use patterns: horizontal, judgemental, layers Site use variability: horizontal, random, levels

Answer 31

Systematic, small, subsurface excavations to tests for presence/absence of archaeological data Dig in 3D grids: horizontal 1x1m; vertical Sometimes excavated in levels, singe the main data is the profile

Answer 32

Natural layers: the sites strata visually seperable from other levels by a change in texture, color, rock, or organic content Arbitrary levels: basic vertical subdivisions of an excavation square

Answer 33

Long linear trenches across key parts of a site to evaluate the vertical dimension Expose and record stratigraphy Understand site formation Distinguish natural and human activity (depositional history) Trench digging

Answer 34

Broad, open excavations often in large grids designed to explore one time period in great detail Records and removes layers

Answer 35

Wheeler box grid: squares between units with balks Open area excavation: still have squares, but no balks Step trenching: a trench with steps in it Digging: Levels OR Stratigraphically Ie. you create levels, or did stratigraphically (layers)

Answer 36

determination of a chronology without a fixed time scale Typological sequence or seriation (stone, bronze, iron)

Answer 37

the determination of age with reference to a specific timescale Specific calendar year (1500CE) or range of years (3.6-3.8MYA)

Answer 38

Diagnostic artifact: coins, trademark items, artifacts Typology: artifacts classified according so simlitarity and linked to a specific context or period (ex artistic style/conventions; works best with pottery)

Answer 39

Relative dating method that orders artifacts based on the assumption that once cultural style slowly replaces another over time Ex, coins, phones, tvs, headphones, computers weapons, jewlery, audio recording devices, cameras, etc. Gradual changes in design

Answer 40

Use decay rates of naturally occurring radioactive elements that transform from one isotope into another (carbon, potassium, argon, uranium) Isotope: atoms of the same element but with different masses; same number of protons but different number of neutrons

Answer 41

C14 produced in atmosphere Absorbed by plants through CO2 (carbon dioxide) Animals feed off plants or other animals Uptake of C14 ceases when the plant or animal dies Time measurement based on isotopes “half life” Half life: the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a radioactive material to decay Half life of C14 is 5730 years After about 50,000 years there is too little C14 to measure accurately Range 400 yrs ago to 50,000 years ago What can’t we date? (radiocarbon): Things older or younger than x years, metals, rocks,

Answer 42

DeVries effect: Amount of C14 in atmosphere is not consistent through time `Calibration based on radiocarbon from tree-rings with known calendar dates Radiocarbon dates can be calibrated to more than one calendar date (error range) Reservoir effect: Samples from organisms that took in carbon from a source that was depleted of or enriched in carbon-14 relative to the atmosphere may return ages that are considerably older or younger than they actually are

Answer 43

The study of annual variations in tree-ring patterns as a measure of environmental change as the basis fr chronology Light bands formed in summer; dark in winter Thickness of bands changes from year to year This pattern can help us reconstruct the time period Can work for up to 8000 years in the past Regional Master sequence back from present Species used in the past Sufficiently long record to give a unique match Caution: old wood can be scavanged and reused in a later site Gives us a sense of environmental patterns Calibrate radiocarbon dates

Answer 44

Radioactive isotope K40 slowly decays to a stable isotope of Ar-40 High temperatures required (+6000C) release all original argon from the roc, setting the radiopotassium clock to zero Igneous rocks…. See slide 24 Used for things like: volcanic ash, other things exposed to volcanic activity Usually an indirect dating method (using dirt or whatever around what you found to date the thing you found by association)

Answer 45

Relies on the fact that electrons become trapped in mineral’s crystal lattices as a function of background radiation The background radiation causes some electrons to move into different energy states, others get trapped within the crystal structure A measure of trapped electrons in crystal used to provide a date (that then gets calibrated) Thermoluminesence: based on accumulation of trapped electrons in minerals/crystals heated to min of 500C (ie ceramics, burned stone); heat releases electrons

Answer 46

Recording time varies between cultures The modern world uses arbitrary fixed points to generate a scale Christian: BC/AD - birth of Jesus is 0 Secular: BCE/CE - birth of jesus is still 0 Archaeological for 14C: 1950CE is 0 (BP/before present)

Answer 47

Getting genetic material from skeletons to assign biological sex

Answer 48

DNA inheritance patterns: nuclear dna is from all ancestors, mitochondrial dna is inherited from a single lineage (only from the mother’s side) Maternal: mitochondrial DNA Paternal: Y-chromosome Degree of relatedness: genomic DNA

arcl midterm Flashcards

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