Arguments Based on Observation Flashcards
(148 cards)
1
Q
What are the two types of arguments for the existence of God?
A
A priori and A posteriori
A priori arguments rely on reason alone, while A posteriori arguments rely on empirical observations.
2
Q
What does ‘a priori’ mean?
A
Arguments that rely on reason alone and do not reference empirical observation
These arguments are considered ‘prior to experience’.
3
Q
What does ‘a posteriori’ mean?
A
Arguments that rely on empirical observations
These arguments are made ‘post experience’.
4
Q
What types of arguments are based on observation?
A
Teleological arguments and Cosmological arguments
These are categorized as A posteriori arguments.
5
Q
What is the teleological argument?
A
An argument that seeks to prove the existence of God through the deliberate design of the natural world
The term ‘telos’ in Greek means purpose.
6
Q
What is the cosmological argument?
A
An argument that seeks to prove the existence of God through the existence of the universe itself
The Greek word ‘cosmos’ refers to the universe.
7
Q
What is the main focus of Aquinas’ Teleological Argument?
A
The existence of order and purpose in the world proves that God must have designed it.
This argument is one of three Teleological Arguments.
8
Q
Who was Thomas Aquinas?
A
A Catholic Priest.
9
Q
When was Aquinas alive?
A
the 13th Century
10
Q
What was Aquinas interested in?
A
Reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity.
11
Q
What was Aquinas’ aim in his work?
A
To show how faith and reason might work together.
12
Q
In which book does Aquinas outline his arguments for the existence of God?
A
Summa Theologica.
13
Q
How many ways does Aquinas outline for proving the existence of God?
A
Five ways.
14
Q
During Aquinas’ time, what was the general belief about God?
A
Everyone believed in God and went to church.
15
Q
What does Aquinas’ book, Summa Theologica, not focus on?
A
Proving that God is real.
16
Q
What is Aquinas’ Fifth Way?
A
Aquinas’ Fifth Way is a teleological argument for proving God’s existence.
17
Q
What observation does Aquinas make about nature?
A
Nature seems to have order and purpose.
18
Q
Who influenced Aquinas in his understanding of purpose?
A
Aristotle.
19
Q
According to Aquinas, how do we achieve our purpose?
A
Not by chance, but by design.
20
Q
What does Aquinas argue about intelligence and purpose?
A
Nothing without intelligence could have its own purpose without the aid of a ‘guiding hand’.
21
Q
What does Aquinas identify as the ‘guiding hand’?
A
God, a being endowed with knowledge and intelligence.
22
Q
What analogy does Aquinas use to explain his argument?
A
The analogy of an arrow and an Archer.
23
Q
In Aquinas’ analogy, what does the arrow represent?
A
Natural things that cannot reach their target on their own.
24
Q
Who does the Archer represent in Aquinas’ analogy?
A
An intelligent being that directs all natural things towards their end, which is God.
25
Who produced a teleological argument similar to Aquinas?
William Paley
26
In what period did William Paley develop his arguments?
The enlightenment
27
What influenced Paley's teleological argument?
Scientific discoveries happening during his lifetime
28
What is the title of William Paley's book where he outlines his teleological argument?
Natural Theology
29
What analogy does Paley use to illustrate his teleological argument?
Watch analogy
30
What was a key reason for the resurgence of teleological arguments during Paley's time?
New observations about the natural world
31
What analogy does Paley use to illustrate his argument for intelligent design?
The analogy of finding a watch in a field versus finding a rock.
32
What conclusion does Paley draw from the existence of a watch?
It must have been created by an intelligent designer due to its complexity and functionality.
33
According to Paley, what characteristics of the earth suggest it was designed?
Order, purpose, and complexity.
34
Who does Paley argue is the intelligent designer of the earth?
God.
35
What do some philosophers argue about the order in nature?
They believe it could have easily occurred by chance, which they argue is a more plausible explanation.
36
How does Darwin's theory of evolution relate to teleological arguments?
It provides evidence against these arguments by suggesting that natural selection is responsible for order and purpose in nature.
37
What does Darwin argue about the need for God in the process of natural selection?
Natural selection does not need God to exist and can be explained purely scientifically.
38
What is the title of Richard Dawkins' book that challenges arguments for the existence of God?
The Blind Watchmaker.
39
What is Dawkins' stance on the illusion of design in nature?
He argues it can be entirely explained by natural, scientific processes.
40
According to Dawkins, who is the 'watchmaker' in nature?
The blind forces of physics.
41
Fill in the blank: Darwin's theory of _______ provides evidence against teleological arguments.
evolution
42
What does the term 'teleological arguments' refer to?
Arguments for the existence of God based on the order and purpose in nature.
43
What is Swinburne's view on evolution and the existence of God?
Evolution does not disprove the existence of God.
## Footnote
Swinburne suggests that God is the guiding hand behind evolution.
44
What role does Swinburne attribute to God in the process of evolution?
God is responsible for the initial spark of life and monitors evolution to ensure it progresses correctly.
## Footnote
This monitoring leads to the existence of humans.
45
What argument does Tennant use to challenge the concept of chance?
Tennant uses his Aesthetic argument.
## Footnote
This argument posits that humans can appreciate beauty, music, and art, which are not vital for survival.
46
According to Tennant, what does evolution fail to explain?
Evolution cannot explain the human ability to appreciate and enjoy beauty, music, and art.
## Footnote
These qualities are seen as gifts from God.
47
Fill in the blank: Tennant argues that __________ better explains our ability to show appreciation than evolution.
God
48
What is Collins' Fine-Tuning argument primarily focused on?
The universe
## Footnote
It uses the laws of nature to support the idea of God's existence.
49
What would happen if the initial Big Bang explosion had differed in strength by as little as 1 part in 10^60?
The universe would have either collapsed on itself or expanded too quickly for stars to form, making life impossible.
50
What is the significance of the strong nuclear force in the context of the Fine-Tuning argument?
If it had been stronger or weaker by 5%, life would be impossible.
51
What is the mass relationship between a neutron and a proton that is mentioned in the Fine-Tuning argument?
The neutron is about 1.001 times the mass of a proton.
52
What conclusion does the Fine-Tuning argument draw about the precision of the laws of nature?
It would be incredibly unlikely that these laws could have been so precise by chance; God must be the best explanation.
53
How does the Fine-Tuning argument relate to the challenge of evolution?
It is immune to the challenge of evolution as this occurs on earth, not the universe as a whole.
54
Fill in the blank: Collins' Fine-Tuning argument uses the laws of nature to support the idea of _______.
[God's existence]
55
What argument does Tennant support with his ‘Anthropic Principle’?
The Fine-Tuning argument
## Footnote
The Anthropic Principle suggests that the universe is structured to inevitably allow for human life to develop.
56
What evidence does the Fine-Tuning argument provide?
Coincidences in the laws of nature necessary for life to develop
## Footnote
These coincidences are interpreted as evidence of God's existence.
57
According to Swinburne, what is the simplest explanation for the laws of nature being finely tuned?
God
## Footnote
Swinburne argues that God is simpler than random occurrences of natural laws.
58
What principle does Swinburne use to support his argument?
Ockham’s Razor
## Footnote
Ockham’s Razor states that we should prefer the simplest explanation when multiple explanations are equally good.
59
True or False: The Anthropic Principle suggests that human life is a coincidence.
False
## Footnote
The principle posits that the universe is structured in such a way that human life is inevitable.
60
Fill in the blank: According to Swinburne, God is a _______ explanation compared to the laws of nature occurring randomly.
simpler
## Footnote
This highlights the preference for simpler explanations in understanding complex phenomena.
61
Who objected to nature being used to prove God?
J.S. Mill
62
What did J.S. Mill focus on in his objection to teleological arguments?
Observation of cruelty, suffering, and evil in the world
63
What conclusion did J.S. Mill reach regarding God based on the existence of evil?
God is either not good or limited in some way
64
What philosophical problem arises from J.S. Mill's arguments against teleological arguments?
The Problem of Evil
65
What does the existence of evil imply about the world according to J.S. Mill?
The world was not designed perfectly with order and purpose
66
What key idea of the Teleological argument does J.S. Mill's observation challenge?
The world being designed perfectly with order and purpose
67
What was Hume's view on the analogy between the world and a watch?
Hume believed the analogy was weak due to the vast gap between human artifacts and the universe.
68
Why does Hume believe comparing human artifacts to the world is weak?
The similarities so remote that reasoning on this basis is useless.
69
What is Hume's stance as an empiricist regarding causation?
Hume believed we can only prove causation through observation, and since the universe is unique, we can never know its cause.
70
What is the Tightrope Problem according to Hume?
If the analogy is strong, it suggests a human-like designer, not God. If weak, we can't draw conclusions about God or prove His existence.
71
How did Hume explain the order in the world?
Hume argued that order came about by chance, specifically through the Epicurean Hypothesis.
72
What is the Epicurean Hypothesis?
Hume's idea that the world is made up of particles that, given infinite time, would inevitably reach an ordered state.
73
What analogy did Hume use to illustrate his point about order arising by chance?
Hume used the analogy of infinite monkeys on infinite typewriters eventually writing the works of Shakespeare.
74
Why would the ordered state likely persist, according to Hume?
Because things that work together tend to survive.
75
What assumption does Hume say the Teleological argument rests on?
The assumption that we must explain the order and purpose of the world as being God.
76
What question does Hume raise about the assumption of the Teleological argument?
He questions why we stop at God and suggests we must offer an explanation for God's existence as well.
77
What do cosmological arguments seek to prove?
The existence of God
78
What foundational reasoning do all cosmological arguments use?
Cosmological reasoning
79
What is the idea behind cosmological reasoning?
All things are caused by something else, creating a chain of cause and effects
80
Why is infinite regress not possible according to cosmological arguments?
Because something must start the chain of causes
81
What is referred to as the only thing without a cause in cosmological arguments?
God
82
What are the first three of Aquinas' Five Ways?
Motion, causation, and contingency
## Footnote
These are the foundations of Aquinas' cosmological arguments.
83
What is the First Way in Aquinas' cosmological argument?
The Unmoved Mover
## Footnote
This argument posits that there must be an initial cause of motion, which is God.
84
Who inspired Aquinas' First Way argument?
Aristotle
## Footnote
Aristotle's ideas about change and motion influenced Aquinas' thoughts.
85
What does Aquinas mean by actuality and potentiality?
Actuality refers to how things are, and potentiality refers to what they might become
## Footnote
This concept illustrates the process of change.
86
According to Aquinas, what moves things from potentiality to actuality?
Something else must move them
## Footnote
This creates a chain of movers.
87
What is the issue with infinite regression in the context of motion?
There would be no first mover and thus no motion
## Footnote
This is illustrated by the domino effect.
88
What analogy does Aquinas use to explain the concept of the first mover?
The domino effect
## Footnote
One domino must cause the others to fall.
89
What does Aquinas conclude must exist to initiate motion?
A first mover
## Footnote
This first mover is understood to be God.
90
What is the main premise of The Second Way?
Everything we observe (the effect) is caused by something else.
91
What philosophical idea does The Second Way rely on?
Aristotle’s idea of an ‘efficient cause’.
92
Can anything be its own efficient cause according to The Second Way?
No, nothing can be its own efficient cause because it cannot have existed before itself.
93
What must things that are causes themselves be?
They must themselves be caused.
94
What would happen if we could go back to infinity regarding causes?
There would be no first cause of everything, and later effects and causes wouldn’t have happened.
95
What is the conclusion drawn from The Second Way about the existence of a first cause?
There must be a special case, a first efficient cause which is uncaused.
96
What is understood to be the first uncaused causer?
God.
97
Fill in the blank: The Second Way argues that a first cause causes a second, a second causes a _______.
third.
98
True or False: The Second Way supports the idea of an infinite regression of causes.
False.
99
What does Aquinas argue about everything in the universe?
Everything in the universe is contingent and relies on something to have brought it into existence and to continue its existence.
## Footnote
Contingent means that something's existence depends on something else.
100
What is the implication if everything is contingent on something else for existence?
If everything was contingent, then nothing could exist now.
## Footnote
This presents a paradox where the existence of the universe would be impossible.
101
Why is the idea of a time when nothing existed considered absurd by Aquinas?
It is absurd because things are in existence now.
## Footnote
The existence of anything contradicts the idea of total non-existence at any point.
102
What must exist according to Aquinas for anything to exist?
There must be something that has necessary existence, is uncaused, has always existed, and causes other beings.
## Footnote
This is a fundamental aspect of Aquinas' argument for the existence of God.
103
What does Aquinas identify as the source of necessary existence?
Aquinas identifies God as the source of necessary existence.
## Footnote
God is understood as the ultimate cause that is not contingent on anything else.
104
Who put forward the Principle of Sufficient Reason?
Gottfried Leibniz
105
What is the main premise of the Principle of Sufficient Reason?
There must be an explanation for everything, including the universe
106
According to Leibniz, where cannot the explanation for something come from?
From within that thing itself
107
Why can the explanation for the universe not come from something inside the universe?
Nothing inside the universe existed before the universe itself
108
Where must the explanation for the universe come from, according to Leibniz?
From outside of the universe
109
For Leibniz, who is the source of the explanation for the universe?
God
110
What are Kalam Scholars?
Islamic Scholars who argued for the existence of God.
## Footnote
Kalam Scholars focused on philosophical arguments regarding the existence of God.
111
When were Kalam Scholars alive?
During the 8th and 9th centuries.
112
What type of argument did Kalam Scholars put forward?
A cosmological argument focused on the impossibility of infinite regress
## Footnote
This argument posits that there cannot be an infinite series of events leading back in time.
113
Who supports the arguments of Kalam Scholars in modern philosophy?
William Lane Craig
## Footnote
Craig is a contemporary philosopher known for his defense of the Kalam Cosmological Argument.
114
What hypothetical scenario does William Lane Craig use to illustrate the absurdity of infinity?
A library with an infinite number of books
## Footnote
Craig asks how many books are left if you take 5 books out of an infinite library.
115
What conclusion does the library scenario lead to regarding actual infinity?
Actual infinity is not possible
## Footnote
While hypothetical infinity can be conceptualized, it cannot exist in reality.
116
What do Kalam Scholars conclude must exist to prevent infinite regress?
God
## Footnote
This conclusion stems from the belief that there must be a first cause or necessary being.
117
Fill in the blank: Kalam Scholars argue that something must be preventing this _______.
infinite regress
118
What does the Big Bang explain according to scholars like Dawkins?
How the universe came to be and what started the chains of motion and cause and effect
## Footnote
This perspective suggests there is no need for a God.
119
What evidence supports the idea of an expanding universe?
Red shift and background radiation
## Footnote
These observations indicate that the universe had a starting point and is not infinite.
120
What is Mackie's belief regarding the Principle of Sufficient Reason?
It is not true
## Footnote
He argues we feel compelled to believe the universe is pointless and has no reason for its existence.
121
Who supports Mackie's view that the universe is a 'brute fact'?
Bertrand Russell
## Footnote
Russell argues that the universe is 'just there'.
122
What question did Russell raise about the Principle of Sufficient Reason?
Why does it stop at God?
## Footnote
He suggests we should also apply this principle to God and find a sufficient reason for His existence.
123
What does Russell argue about the consistency of the cosmological argument?
It is not applied consistently
## Footnote
This inconsistency devalues the argument.
124
What did Hume argue about the relationship between cause and effect?
It is an idea created by the human mind
## Footnote
Hume believed that we can never observe cause and effect directly, only sequences of events.
125
What is Hume's stance on the source of knowledge?
All knowledge comes through observation
## Footnote
Hume was an empiricist, emphasizing the role of sensory experience.
126
What does Hume suggest we actually observe in relation to cause and effect?
One thing following another
## Footnote
This leads to the formation of habits of mind that assume causation.
127
What is the fallacy of composition as per Hume?
The assumption that what is true for parts is true for the whole
## Footnote
Hume argues that just because every known thing has a cause does not mean the universe must also have a cause.
128
What example did Russell use to support Hume's argument on the fallacy of composition?
Just because everyone has a mother, it does not mean the human race as a whole has to have a mother
## Footnote
This illustrates that individual instances do not guarantee a universal conclusion.
129
What does Hume claim about the idea of something existing without a cause?
It is not incoherent or illogical
## Footnote
Hume argues that it is conceivable and therefore possible to imagine things existing without a cause.
130
According to Hume, what is the implication of infinite regress?
There is nothing self-contradictory about it
## Footnote
Hume argues that the cosmological argument incorrectly assumes infinite regress is false.
131
Fill in the blank: Hume believed we make _______ leaps when we observe specific instances that lead to general conclusions.
inductive
132
True or False: Hume believed that the universe must have a causation because everything we know has a cause.
False
133
What did Hume argue regarding arguments from observation?
They do not prove that the intelligent being is the Christian God
## Footnote
Hume suggests that the creator could be different in nature or character.
134
What possibilities did Hume suggest about the creator of the universe?
* The creator could be very different from God
* The creator could be stupid or evil
* There could be multiple Gods
* The creator could have limitations or made mistakes
## Footnote
Hume points out that imperfection exists in the world, suggesting limitations of the creator.
135
What was Hume's criticism of natural theology?
We cannot determine the cause of the world based on observation alone
## Footnote
Hume argues that observing the world does not lead to a definitive understanding of its cause.
136
What analogy did Hume use to explain his critique of natural theology?
A pair of scales with a 1kg weight
## Footnote
Hume illustrates that we can only see one side of the scales, similar to our limited understanding of the universe.
137
What is the main idea behind Hume's analogy of the scales?
We cannot assume we know the cause of the world from observed effects
## Footnote
This analogy emphasizes the limitations of human understanding regarding the universe's origins.
138
What type of arguments does Hume critique in his challenges?
A posteriori arguments for God
## Footnote
These arguments rely on observation and experience rather than pure reasoning.
139
What is a logical fallacy?
An error in logic.
140
What do critics argue about the assumption of purpose and cause in arguments for the existence of God?
They argue it can be a logical fallacy because it is based on assumptions.
141
What is infinite regression according to Aquinas?
Aquinas maintains that infinite regression is not possible.
142
In reality, what can go back to infinity?
Things like maths and numbers.
143
What is the problem with Aquinas’ conclusion about the uncaused causer?
The jump from a narrow observation to declaring it as the Christian God could be an error in logic.
144
Fill in the blank: A logical fallacy is an error in _______.
[logic]
145
True or False: Critics believe that assumptions about purpose and cause do not constitute a logical fallacy.
False
146
What is one key criticism of Aquinas’ reasoning?
The jump to a transcendent creator is too far.
147
What is the basis of a posteriori arguments?
They start with the observation that the natural world seems orderly, leading to the suggestion of a divine intellectual designer as the best explanation for this order.
## Footnote
A posteriori arguments are based on empirical evidence rather than prior assumptions.
148
What criticism did Hume have regarding cosmological arguments?
Hume criticized the cosmological argument for making too large a jump in concluding the existence of God without sufficient justification.
## Footnote
Hume's critique emphasizes the need for more rigorous reasoning to connect observed phenomena to the existence of a deity.
