ASOS 2 - What Influences a person's perception of the world?

Question 1

8A - Attention

Define Attention:

Answer 1

Attention refers to actively focusing on particular information while simultaneously ignoring other information.

Question 2

8A - Attention

Why do humans need Attention (an Attention spand)?

Answer 2

Humans need attention as it allows us to tune out irrelavent information in our surrounding environments and enables us to focus our limited energy and brain resources on the most important objects, function, sensations and situation (relavent information)

Question 3

8A - Attention

What do the types of Attentions allow us (humans) to do?

Answer 3

Attention (all 3 types) allows us (humans) to make sense of our internal (body/thoughts/emotions) and external (situations circumstances) world

Question 4

8A - Attention

Define ‘Information sources’:

Answer 4

Information sources refer to the origin from where we obtain sensory data and experiences that inform our perception, cognition and behaviour.

Question 5

8A - Attention

What do ‘information sources’ provide?

Answer 5

Information sources provide information on how we interact with and interpret the world around us.

Question 6

8A - Attention

Define a stimuli:

Answer 6

A stimuli refers to any interanl or external factors that provoke a responce or reaction in an organism, triggering psychological or behavioural responces.

Question 7

8A - Attention

Identifty the 2 tyeps of information sources:

Answer 7

1. Internal stimuli
2. External stimuli

Question 8

8A - Attention

Define internal stimuli:

Answer 8

Internal stimuli refer to information or sensations that originate from body-based information or cues.

Question 9

8A - Attention

Identify and example of internal stimuli:

Answer 9

• feeling hungry
• feeling tired
• having a fever
• being hot or cold
• experiencing pain (headache)
• having an idea

Question 10

8A - Attention

Define external stimuli:

Answer 10

External stimuli refer to information or sensations that originate from outside the body (extrinct information).

Extrinct Information - refers to data/context sourcing from external sources, influencing decisions or perceptions beyond what’s inherent to the subject itself.

Question 11

8A - Attention

Identify an example of external stimuli:

Answer 11

• conversations with others
• specific tasks an individual is completing
• something your reading
• events you participate in w/ 5 sences (things you see/hear/smell/touch/taste)

Question 12

8A - Attention

Identify the types of Attention:

Answer 12

1. Sustained Attention
2. Divieded Attention
3. Selective Attention

Question 13

8A - Attention

Define Sustained Attention

Answer 13

Sustained Attention refers to focusing on one stimulus or task across a prolonged or continuous period of time

Question 14

8A - Attention

What is the role of Sustained Attention?

Answer 14

The role of Sustained Attention is to allow concentration on tasks for completion OR attendance of events for a specific time period

Question 15

8A - Attention

What are daily examples of Sustained Attention?

Answer 15

Sustained Attention is largely represented in daily activities:
* searching for something in a bag
* watching a video from start to finish
* completing a simple maths test
* holding a conversation for a few minutes

Question 16

8A - Attention

What are the stages of Sustained Attention?

Answer 16

The stages of Sustained Attention involve 3 key stages:
1. Individual focuses their attention on the stimulus they wish to sustain attention towards
2. Maintaining attention on that stimulus (internal motivation plays)
3. Releasing sustained attention when you no longer need to focus on it

Question 17

8A - Attention

Define Internal motivation:

Refered to Instrinctive or Internal and playes a part in Sustained Attention

Answer 17

Internal motivation or Instinctive motivation refers to **motivation driven by an internal reward.
**
Motivation to sustain attention or hold focus is driven by the personal interest of enjoyment or purpose

Question 18

8A - Attention

Define Divided Attention:

Answer 18

Divided Attention refers to splitting attention across 2+ stimuli at one time.

Question 19

8A - Attention

Identify the factors Divided Attention involves?

Answer 19

1. Divided Attention involves multi-tasking, referring to the act of working on multiple tasks at once
2. Divided Attention also can involve the cognitive bias of Overestimation, meaning an individual believes they are better than they actually are, due to the fact that the brain of an individual can only process so many things at once
3. Divided Attention also can make an individual more prone to distraction and reduce their understanding of the task, due to the constant switching tasks whih can decrease performance.

Question 20

8A - Attention

Identify Situations where it is common to multi-task

Divided Attention

Answer 20

Multi-tasking is inevitable, particularly in situations where:
1. It enables us to perform 2 tasks at the same time when we feel we are unable to complete one before the other
2. we are juggling a boring class with a more interesting one so we feel more entertained
3. we are actively learning as we process multiple tasks at once.

Question 21

8A - Attention

Identify limitations of Divided Attention:

Answer 21

Limitation of divided attention source from multi-tasking as it requires individuals to divide their attention, preventing them from giving their full potential to just one task. Negatively impacting our performance when:
1. we have to stop a task that is not easy to resume
2. the tasks are less related and jumping between them is more disruptive to your attention
3. when tasks are more effortful, as they typically require more attention to be completed

Question 22

8A - Attention

Define Distractions:

Answer 22

Distractions refer to internal or external stimuli that draw an individuals attention away from the current task they are working on, where individuals find themselves constantly having to refocus their attention.

Question 23

8A - Attention

Define Selective Attention:

Answer 23

Selective Attention refers to exclusively focusing your attention on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring all other stimuli or tasks (external stimuli - noises, distracting visuals, as well as internal stimuli - thoughts, emotions)

Question 24

8A - Attention

Why does Selective Attention have priciples?

Answer 24

Selective Attebtion has principle to allow individuals to learn about new stimuli, focus on dangerous or unexpected stimuli, focus on stimuli that align with relevant or current goals and interests.

Question 25

# 8A - Attention Identify the **key factor** each type of **Attention involves**:

Answer 25

1. Sustained Attenion - **Instrinctive Motivation** OR **Internal Motivation** 2. Divided Attention - **Multi-Tasking** AND postentially **overestimation** AND potential **increaced distraction**

Question 26

# 8B - Perception Explain how individuals **absorb sensory information**? ## Footnote -----> **Identify** and **Explain** the steps

Answer 26

1. **Reception** ____ raw peices of information that are detected by an individuals sensory receptors *E.g., 5 senses (taste/sound/smell/touch/sight) and sensory organs* 2. **Transduction** ____ The captured information is converted into neural impulses *E.g., visual info = photoreceptors in your eyes* 3. **Transmission** ____ The neural impluses are transmitted to an individuals brain for processing *(visual info = in this stage you are still not consiously aware of the objects present)* 4. **Selection** ____ An individuals brain focuses on specific features of obtained information (any of 5 senses), while ignoring less prominent details 5. **Organisation** ____ The slescted feautures selected are re-grouped and cohesively arranged by your brain 6. **Interpretation** ____ The newly organised sensory information in interpreted, an individual is now able to contiously recognise the object, assigning meaning to it based on you past experiences and knowledge and then we decide how to behave in response | OR Sensory stimuli < sensory organs < neural impluse < brain < reaction ## Footnote We are only ever aware of **SOME** sensory information despite it flooding our sensors

Question 27

# 8B - Perception Identify the steps of the **Visual Sensory System** | **(Visual Perception)**

Answer 27

**1.** Visual Stimuli is recieved by the eye in th eform of light **2.** light is recieved by receptors in the eye specifically the retina (a layer at the back of the eye) **3.** the light energy os converted into a neural message and sent to the brain **4.** Visual information is recieved in the occipital lobe of the brain, ready for the process of perception to commence

Question 28

# 8B - Perception Define **Sensation**: | (Visual Perception)

Answer 28

Sensation refers to the process of **recieving or detecting raw sensory information via sensory organs** and **sending** the information **to the brain** | (Visual Perception)

Question 29

# 8B - Perception Define **Perception**: | (Visual Perception)

Answer 29

Perception refer to the **process of selecting/organising/interpreting sensory information,** occuring **automatically** and **uncontiouly** allowing the sensory information to enter an individuals **contious awareness so it can be understood.** | (Visual Perception)

Question 30

# 8B - Perception Define **Taste**:

Answer 30

Taste refers to a **sensation** based around the **basic chemical stimuli detected by the taste buds** on the tounge. | refers to a **limited** **response** based on **person perception**

Question 31

# 8B - Perception Define **Flavour**:

Answer 31

Flavour refers to a **perception** refering to how **taste sensations** and **more complex experiences** such as smell (aroma), texture and temperature **are intregated by the brain** (the sensory inputs), to **create the overall experience of flavour.** | **Perception** and **Experience**

Question 32

# 8B - Perception Explain **Taste** vs **Flavour**

Answer 32

**Taste** is a **basic sensation** detected by **taste buds**, like sweet or salty. **Flavour** is a more **complex perception** that **combines taste with smell, texture, and temperature,** creating the overall **eating experience.**

Question 33

# 8B - Perception Define **Tastants**:

Answer 33

Tastants refer to **taste receptors** that **detect the 5 basic flavours** and **transmit** them **to the bain through neural coding.**

Question 34

# 8B - Perception Identify the **5 basic flavours**:

Answer 34

1. **sweet** 2. **salty** 3. **sour** 4. **bitter** 5. **Umani**

Question 35

# 8B - Perception Provide an **example** of each of the **5 basic flavours**:

Answer 35

1. sweet - **cherries, sugar** 2. salty - **chips popcorn** 3. sour - **lemons, limes** 4. bitter - **coffee, rocket**, **kale** 5. Umani - **meat, tomartoes, soy sauce**

Question 36

# 8B - Perception Where are **taste receptors found**?

Answer 36

Tast receptors are taste buds grouped **inside the bumps on your tongue called papillae**

Question 37

# 8B - Perception Define **Perception** | (Perception and Taste)

Answer 37

Perception refers to **making sense of the pre-coded information.** Perception is determined by **incoming sensory information moving from specific stimulus information to general knowledge** perceptual interpretations are **entirely based on the way information is organised**

Question 38

# 8B - Perception Identify and Explain the **steps of Perception and Taste:**

Answer 38

1. **Detection** - Incoming Gustatory Information undergoes sensation, starting with **detection by gustatory receptors** 2. **Organisation** - The primary Gustatory Cortex, as well as the other **sensory regions** of the cerebral cortext **process the sensory information** 3. **Interpretation** - The **outcomes** from the processing of the sensory information **are combined to form an overall interpretative perception**

Question 39

# 8B - Perception Identify the **types of Perceptual Processing:**

Answer 39

1. **Bottom-up** processing 2. **Top-down** processing

Question 40

# 8B - Perception Define **Bottom-up processing**:

Answer 40

Bottom-up processing refers to a type of perception typically used when the **information is unfamiliar or highly complex.** The sensory **data is processed in real-time and moves up to the brain to be perceived** and understood

Question 41

# 8B - Perception Define **Top-down processing**:

Answer 41

Top-down processing requires no previous knowledge of the sensory stimuli as it is **driven by prior knowledge and expectations.** Top-down processing involves **sensory stimuli linked to information categories (schemas) stored in long term memory** It refers to **moving from general knowledge to specific stimulus information** It is typically used when what is being perceived is **relatively familiar and less complex**

Question 42

# 8B - Perception How do **Top-down** processing and **Bottom-up** processing **work together**?

Answer 42

Bottom-up processing **starts with sensory input**, where the **brain builds up a perception** by interpreting **raw data** from the senses. Top-down processing uses **prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences** to interpret and **give meaning to this sensory** information. Together, they allow us to **recognize familiar objects and patterns quickly** while also **making sense of new stimuli.** ## Footnote **Bottom-up** provides the **details**, while **top-down fills in gaps** and adjusts perceptions based on what we already know.

Question 43

# 8C Visual Perception Identify the **factors visual perception is influenced** by:

Answer 43

* **Biological** factors * **Social** Factors * **Psychologicial** Factors

Question 44

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Biological Factors** (In terms of Depth Cues)

Answer 44

Biological factors are **internal genetic and/or physiologically based factors.** Many biological factors are largely based on the **eyes as visual sensory organs.**

Question 45

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Explain **Visual Perceptions** in relation to **Biological Factors**

Answer 45

Visual Perception Biologically refers to: 1. **light entering the eye through the pupil** 2. Being **focused through the lens onto the retina**. 3. The **retina contains photoreceptors** which **receive light and convert it into neural impulses** 4. That are **sent to the brain**

Question 46

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Identify and Define the **types of Photoreceptors**:

Answer 46

There are two types of photoreceptors located in the retina: 1. **Rods** allow someone to **see in low levels of light**, shaped like **long cylinders** (Night Vision), they **allow peripheral vision** 2. **Cones** allow someone to **see colour and fine details in well-lit,** shapped like **cones** (Day Vision), they **don't allow perpheral vision**

Question 47

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Where are **Rods** and **Cones** located in teh eye?

Answer 47

* **Rods** are loated mostly on the **outer edges of the retina** * **Cones** are most densely concentrated in the **center of the retina** (forvea)

Question 48

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Identify a **Biological Abnormalities in Visual Perception** (and the types/variations when applicable):

Answer 48

A Biological Abnormality refers to **Colour blindness**, there are 3 main types and they largely affect men: 1. **Red-Green** Colour Blindness 2. **Blue-Yellow** Colour Blindness 3. **Complete** Colour Blindness Other Biological Abnormalities refer to: * **Myopia** (shortsidedness)

Question 49

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Red-Green** colour Blindness:

Answer 49

Red-Green colour blindness refers to when individuals struggle to tell the **difference between** the colours **red and green.**

Question 50

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Blue-Yellow** Colour Blindness:

Answer 50

Blue-Yellow colour blindness refers to when individuals struggle to tell the **difference between** the colours **blue and green**, and **yellow and red.**

Question 51

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Complete Colour** Blindness:

Answer 51

Complete colour blindness (**also known as monochromacy**), where people struggle to **differentiate between colours at all**, and often **struggle to see clearly**

Question 52

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Myopia**:

Answer 52

Myopia, or short/near-sightedness, refers to when your **eye** is a little **too long** **or** the **front part** of your eye, called the **cornea**, is **too curved** Because of this shape, **light** that comes into your eye **doesn't focus correctly**. Instead of focusing directly on the retina, which is at the back of your eye, the **light focuses in front of it** This makes things that are **far away look blurry**. People with myopia can see things that are close up pretty well, but might need glasses or contacts to clearly see things that are further away

Question 53

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Why we see the **world in 3-D** and not like a cartoon?

Answer 53

1. When we look at an object our **eyes sends a two-dimensional image of the object to the brain.** 2. The brain **receives two slightly different images** of the object from the left and right eyes 3. The **visual cortex** in the brain **integrates the two images** to create a single th**ree-dimensional image** of the object, also computing the differences between the two images to work out how **far away the object is**

Question 54

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Depth Cues**:

Answer 54

Depth cues rfere to **visual signals** that **allow us to perceive the three-dimensional structure** of the world **from two-dimensional images**, such as those on the retina. Our brains use a **combination of binocular and monocular cues** to estimate depth and distance, creating a sense of three-dimensionality.

Question 55

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Monocular Cues**:

Answer 55

Monocular Cues refer to **visual information** recieved from **both eyes together.**

Question 56

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Binocular Cues**:

Answer 56

Binocular Cues refer to **visual information** recieved from each **eye separately**

Question 57

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) What are the **types of Monocular Cues**?

Answer 57

The three types of monocular depth cues are: 1. **accommodation** 2. **motion parallax** 3. **pictorial depth cues**

Question 58

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Accomodation**: | (Monocular Cues)

Answer 58

refers to the process by which the **eye's lens changes** shape —*bulging to focus on large*, close-up objects and *flattening to focus on distant objects*. The brain receives information about these changes in the lens and uses it to infer the distance of objects from the eye, helping us **perceive depth and distance with one eye.** Flattening = distant object | bulging = close up

Question 59

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Motion Parallax**: | (Monocular Depth)

Answer 59

Motion parallax refers to our **perception of movement** that helps us **gauge how far away things are**. This phenomenon helps us to measure depth: the less objects in our visual field move, the further they are away from us | **less objects = further away**

Question 60

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Pictorial depth cues**: And Identify all **types of Pictorial depth cues**:

Answer 60

Pictorial depth cues are named as such because they are often **manipulated by artists** when painting or drawing a picture. Pictorial depth cues include: 1. **relative size** 2. **height in visual field** 3. **linear perspective** 4. **interposition** (also known as **overlap**) 5. **texture gradient** It is worth noting that, although they are depth cues, pictorial depth cues are **considered psychological (cognitive) factors**. Though they rely on the eye, their effects are **interpreted within the brain.**

Question 61

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Linear Perspective**: | (Monocular Depth Cues - **Pictoral depth cues**)

Answer 61

Linear Perspective has two main componements, including: 1. **Convergence of Parallel Lines**: In linear perspective, parallel lines, such as railroad tracks or a road, appear to converge as they recede into the distance. This convergence is interpreted by the brain as an **indication of depth and distance** 2. **Size Constancy**: As objects move further away, they appear smaller, but the brain maintains size constancy, understanding that the **object’s actual size hasn’t changed**. Linear perspective helps maintain this constancy by providing **contextual clues about distance**

Question 62

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Texture Gradient**: | (Monocular Depth Cues - **Pictoral depth cues**)

Answer 62

Texture gradient is based on the observation that the **texture of surfaces and objects appears to change with distance**. Closer objects have larger and more distinct texture elements, while those farther away have smaller and less distinct texture elements. further = less texture | closer = more texture

Question 63

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Interposition-Overlap-Occlusion**: | (Monocular Depth Cues - **Pictoral depth cues**)

Answer 63

Interposition or occlusion refers to the way objects that partially cover or obscure other objects are perceived as being closer to the viewer. Refers to the way objects that partially cover or obscure other objects are perceived as being closer to the viewer. covering = closer** | **covered = further

Question 64

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Height in the visual field**: | (Monocular Depth Cues - **Pictoral depth cues**)

Answer 64

Based on the observation that objects positioned higher in the visual field are perceived as being further away compared to those positioned lower Objects lower down from the horizon are perceived as being closer to the viewer Objects higher up from the horizon are perceived as being further away from the viewer high objects above horizon = further | low objects below horizon = closer

Question 65

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Relative Size**: | (Monocular Depth Cues - **Pictoral depth cues**)

Answer 65

The brain uses **knowledge of the typical size of familiar objects to make judgments about distance** If two trees are visible and one appears smaller, it is perceived as being further away Compares the size of objects based on the understanding that, **when viewed from the same distance, larger objects are perceived as closer than smaller ones** smaller = further** | **larger = closer

Question 66

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Binocular Depth Cues**:

Answer 66

Binocular depth cues rely on the use of both eyes. There are two types of binocular depth cues: 1. **retinal disparity** 2. **convergence**

Question 67

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Retinal disparity**: | **(Binocular Depth Cue)**

Answer 67

Retinal disparity explains how our two eyes help us perceive depth and distance Because our **eyes are about 6-7 cm apart**, each one sees a **slightly different image of the world.** The **brain compares these two images**, and the small differences between them (the retinal disparity) allow us to judge how far away objects are ​ The **greater the disparity, the closer the object is to us ** | retinal disparity = small differences between two images (from each eye)

Question 68

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors (depth Cues) Define **Convergence**: | **(Binocular Depth Cue)**

Answer 68

Convergence refers to a process that helps us see things in three dimensions and **judge how far away they are** When you focus on something close to your face, like your finger, **your eyes turn inward toward each other**. This inward movement is **called convergence** The **closer the object, the more your eyes converge**. Your brain uses the amount of convergence to figure out the distance of the object This is why when you look at something **far away**, your **eyes stay more parallel**, and when you look at something close, your eyes cross a bit | convergence = eyes inward movement ## Footnote **far away = eyes parallel close = eyes inwaed motion**

Question 69

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Psychological Factors** in terms of Visual Perception:

Answer 69

Psychological factors refer to internal factors pertaining to an individual’s mental processes, **including their cognition, affect, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes**. Particularly relevant to visual perception is the mental process of cognition, due to the **act of mentally processing the incoming stimuli**

Question 70

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Visual Perception Principles**:

Answer 70

Visual perception principles refer to 1. **guiding rules that apply to incoming visual signals** 2. **make sense of our reality** (combining visual signals in a systematic way) 3. **apply** these principles **automatically and unconsciously** 4. **can make ourselves consciously aware of them.**

Question 71

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Identify the **2 types if Visual Perception Principles**:

Answer 71

1. **Gestalt** Principles 2. **Visual** Principles (*Depth Cues - Binocular/Monocular*)

Question 72

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Gestalt Principles:**

Answer 72

Gestalt principles refer to the guiding rules of perception that allow us to organise and group **separate visual stimuli into a meaningful whole**. They **utilise processes of pattern and object recognition**

Question 73

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Identify all **Gestalt Principles:**

Answer 73

The Gestalt principles include: 1. the **proximity** principle 2. the **similarity** principle 3. the **figure-ground** principle 4. the **closure** principle

Question 74

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define the **Proximity Principle:**

Answer 74

The proximity principle refers to our brain’s tendency to **group** together items in an **image** **based on** their **physical closeness** to one another. ## Footnote **Rule**: Group together items that are **physically close **to one another

Question 75

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define the **similarity Principle:**

Answer 75

This principle reflects our brain’s tendency to group together **parts** **of** an **image** that **are similar** in **some way.** Elements of an image can be similar in their **size, shape, colour, position** and so on ## Footnote **Rule:** Group together figures that **look similar** or are related to one another

Question 76

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define the **figure-background principle**:

Answer 76

This principle involves our brain’s tendency to **see** some **figures** as being **at the front of an image** i.e. the ‘**foreground**’, and others as falling back into the ‘**background**’ ## Footnote **Rule:** **Separate figures** in an image by placing some in the **foreground** and some in the **background**.

Question 77

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define the **closure principle:**

Answer 77

The closure principle refers to our brain’s ability to mentally **complete images that are otherwise incomplete.** ## Footnote **Rule**: **Fill in the empty spaces** or gaps of an incomplete picture **to create a whole**

Question 78

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define a **Visuall Constancy**:

Answer 78

Visual constancies refer to our ability to **perceive visual objects as staying the same**, even though they **may appear to change** or do change **in our sensation** If we look at an **object** from **another angle, position**, or under **different light** conditions, we know that the **object itself is not changing thanks to perception**

Question 79

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Identify the **3 types of Visual Constancies**:

Answer 79

Three visual constancies that affect our interpretation of visual stimuli include: 1. **shape** 2. **size** 3. **brightness**

Question 80

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **size Constancy**:

Answer 80

Size Constancy refers to the **perception** of an **object's size** as **constant**, even when its **distance** from us **changes**. For example, people walking away from us appear smaller in our field of vision, but we perceive them as remaining the same size.

Question 81

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Shape Constancy**:

Answer 81

Size Constancy refers to the ability to **perceive** an **object's shape as stable**, even when the **angle** from which we **view** it **changes**. For example, a door appears rectangular whether it is open or closed, even though the angle might change the image on our retinas.

Question 82

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Brightness Constancy**:

Answer 82

The Brightness Constancy refers to the **perception** of an **object's brightness** or colour as **remaining constant** **under varying lighting conditions**. For example, a grey sheet of paper looks grey whether it's in shadow or sunlight, even though the amount of light hitting it changes.

Question 83

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Perceptual Set**:

Answer 83

Perceptual set refers to a **cognitive predisposition** to **perceive things** in a **particular way**, influenced by: 1. **expectations** 2. **prior knowledge** 3. **emotions** 4. **cultural background**. It acts as a **mental filter** that **guides** our **interpretation** of **sensory information**, often leading us to see or **hear what we expect rather than what is actually present**.

Question 84

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Expectations**: | (In relation to Perceptual Sets)

Answer 84

Expectations refer to the anticipations or **beliefs about what we are likely to encounter.** Expectations **strongly influence** how we **perceive stimuli**. For instance, if you expect to see a friend in a crowd, you might mistake a stranger for your friend due to superficial similarities.

Question 85

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Context**: | (In relation to Perceptual Sets)

Answer 85

Context refers to our **preconceived ideas** or beliefs in which we **encounter stimuli** that can **shape our perception**. For example, imagine you're **walking alone at night** in a **quiet neighbourhood** and suddenly hear a **rustling noise behind you**, you **interpret** the rustling noise as **something threatening**, like a person or animal Where as if this happened at daytime in a Busy Park, you interpret the rustling noise as something curious, like a bird

Question 86

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Past Experiences**: | (In relation to Perceptual Sets)

Answer 86

Past Experiences refers to **previous experiences** that can prime us to **perceive things in certain ways.** For example, if you've had negative experiences with a particular type of food, you might perceive its taste more negatively in the future, even if it has been prepared differently

Question 87

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Emotion**: | (In relation to Perceptual Sets)

Answer 87

Emotionrefers to our **emotional state** and how it can **colour our perceptions**. For example, a person who is feeling anxious may perceive neutral faces as hostile or threatening, while someone in a positive mood might perceive the same faces as friendly

Question 88

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Define **Culture**: | (In relation to Perceptual Sets)

Answer 88

Culture refers to how **different cultures emphasize different aspects of the environment** and have **varying experiences** that **influence perceptual expectations**. For example, in western societies a smile is an expression of being friendly, in some eastern societies a smile masks discomfort not being friendly

Question 89

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors How does **Perceptual Set work?**

Answer 89

Perceptual set operates through **top-down processing**, where our brain uses existing knowledge, expectations, and experiences to interpret sensory information. Instead of just processing raw sensory data (bottom-up processing), our brain actively constructs our perception based on what we expect or are primed to see For example, if you see a sequence of images related to animals and then are shown an ambiguous image that could be interpreted as either an animal or a human face, you are more likely to perceive the image as an animal due to the influence of the previous images​

Question 90

# 8C Visual Perception - Psychological Factors Why is **Perceptual Set important**?

Answer 90

Perceptual set plays a crucial role in everyday life because it helps us make **sense of the world quickly and efficiently**. By relying on our **expectations** and **prior knowledge**, we can **process information** **faster** and make decisions **based on limited sensory input**. However, this can also lead to **biases** and errors in perception, as we might **overlook** important details or **misinterpret stimuli**

Question 91

# 8C Visual Perception - Social Factors Define **Social Factors** in Visual Perception

Answer 91

Social factors refer to **external factors** relating to an **individual's interactions with others** and their **external environment**, including their **relationships and community involvement**. (Cultural Norms) | (**Cultural Norms**)

Question 92

# 8C Visual Perception - Social Factors How do **Cultural Norms relate to Visual Perception**?

Answer 92

Our cultural background can shape our perceptual set, **predisposing** us to **perceive visual stimuli in certain ways** specific to our **cultural context**. Cultural norms frame our way of viewing the world. This **relates to top-down** processing and our perceptual set. For example, different cultures have different responses to that question and this relates to cultural perception.​ American children tended to group objects together because they belong to the same category e.g. animals (cow and chicken).​ Chinese children tended to group objects together based on relationships e.g. cow and grass because cows eat grass (Chiu, 1971).​

Question 93

# 8C Visual Perception - Social Factors How does **Indigenous Australian artwork** connect with **visual perception**?

Answer 93

Indigenous Australian artwork connects deeply with visual perception by using **symbolic representation, abstract patterns, and complex visual storytelling** that **challenges conventional ways of seeing**.

Question 94

# 8C Visual Perception - Social Factors How does **Indigenous Australian** artwork **differ** from **Western art** in representing landscapes?

Answer 94

Western art, often uses **linear perspective for depth**, where as, Indigenous Australian art portrays landscapes through **aerial perspectives or map-like views.**

Question 95

# 8C Visual Perception - Social Factors What roles do **Indigenous Australian artworks** play in their **culture**?

Answer 95

Indigenous Australian art is a medium for **transmitting knowledge, history, and spiritual beliefs.**

Question 96

# 8D Gastatory Perception **Where are gustatory receptors found** in the body? | Biological Factors

Answer 96

Gustatory receptors are primarily found on the **taste buds**, which are located on the **papillae of the tongue.**

Question 97

# 8D Gastatory Perception What is **Gustatory Perception**? | Biological Factors

Answer 97

Gustatory perception refers to the **sensory experience of tasting**, involving the **detection of flavor through the tongue's taste buds** and the **brain's interpretation of these signals**. This process includes detecting sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami flavors. Gustatory perception also involves how **psychological and social factors influence our experience of taste.**

Question 98

# 8D Gastatory Perception **Where are gustatory receptors found** in the body? | Biological Factors

Answer 98

Gustatory receptors are primarily found on the **taste buds**, which are located on the **papillae of the tongue.**

Question 99

# 8D Gastatory Perception What happens to our **taste buds as we age?** | Biological Factors

Answer 99

As we age, the **number of taste buds decreases**, and the **remaining taste buds become less sensitive**, reducing our **ability to taste flavors**.

Question 100

# 8D Gastatory Perception what **social factors influence Gustatory Perception?** | Biological Factors

Answer 100

Social factors that influence gustatory perception include: 1. **Cultural Influences**: Cultural background can shape taste preferences and attitudes toward certain foods. 2. **Social Norms**: Eating habits and preferences can be influenced by social trends and the eating behaviors of peers and family. 3. **Social Context**: The environment in which food is consumed (e.g., formal vs. informal settings) and the presence of others can affect taste perception and enjoyment.

Question 101

# 8D Gastatory Perception what **biological factors influence Gustatory Perception?**

Answer 101

Biological factors that influence gustatory perception include: 1. **Taste Buds**: The number and distribution of taste buds on the tongue can affect sensitivity to different tastes. 2. **Age and Genetics**: Taste sensitivity can vary with age and genetic differences, such as variations in taste receptor genes. 3. **Health Conditions**: Conditions like infections or neurological disorders can impact taste perception.

Question 102

# 8D Gastatory Perception what **psychological factors influence Gustatory Perception?**

Answer 102

Psychological factors that influence gustatory perception include: 1. **Expectations**: Anticipations about a food’s taste can alter how it is perceived. 2. **Emotional State**: Mood can affect taste perception; for example, stress or happiness can enhance or diminish the taste experience. 3. **Previous Experiences**: Past experiences with certain foods can shape taste preferences and perceptions.

Question 103

# 8D Gastatory Perception Can **genetic factors influence food preferences** beyond just **sensitivity to flavors**? | Biological Factors

Answer 103

Yes, genetic factors can also **determine specific food preferences, such as whether someone likes or dislikes coriander**

Question 104

# 8D Gastatory Perception Give an example of how **age-related changes in taste perception might influence an older adult’s diet.** | Biological Factors

Answer 104

An older adult might **prefer stronger-flavored or more seasoned foods** because their **reduced taste sensitivity makes milder foods taste bland.**

Question 105

# 8D Gastatory Perception How might being a **supertaster affect a person’s food choices**? | Biological Factors

Answer 105

A supertaster might avoid very bitter or overly sweet foods because they **experience these flavors more intensely**, making them **less enjoyable**.

Question 106

# 8D Gastatory Perception Why might **non-tasters be more willing to try a variety of foods?** | Biological Factors

Answer 106

Non-tasters **experience flavors less intensely,** so they might be **less likely to find certain foods overwhelming or unpleasant**, making them more **open to trying different foods.**

Question 107

# 9A Errors of sight What are **Errors of sight related to**?

Answer 107

Errors of sight are related to: 1. the **fallibility of visual perception** 2. **visual illusions** 3. the **disorder Agnosia** (9C)

Question 108

# 9A Errors of Sight Define the **Fallibility of Visual Perception**:

Answer 108

Fallibility refers to the quality of **being prone to error** or **experiencing difficulties in judgement**. The fallibility of visual perception is **not due to errors in sensation** (our ability to detect sensory information) **but due to errors in perception** (made within our brains in processing this information). E.g. seeing an object in the distance that you realise isn't really there as you get closer to it. | (This **relates to perceptual distortions**)

Question 109

# 9A Errors of sight Define **perceptual Distortions**: | (Fallibility of Visual Perception)

Answer 109

Perceptual distortions refer to **errors in the judgement** or **interpretation of sensory stimuli.**

Question 110

# 9A Errors of sight Define **Visual Illusions**:

Answer 110

A visual illusion is the **perception of a visual stimulus** that **conflicts with** how it is in **physical reality**. Something in our physical external environment might make an image difficult to interpret during perception.

Question 111

# 9A Errors of sight What **factors** are **Visual Illusions caused by**?

Answer 111

These illusions are often **caused by biopsychosocial factors.** Meaning: 1. **Biological factors** - Something physiological might make an image difficult to interpret. E.g. looking at a bright light and still seeing that bright light even after turning the light off. 2. **Social factors** 3. **Psychological factors** - Something psychological. E.g. perceiving things in particular ways due to our own biases.

Question 112

# 9A Errors of sight Define the **Muller-Lyer Illusion**: | (2 lines with different arror heads on each end)

Answer 112

The Muller-Lyer Illusion refers to a **visual illusion** where **two equal-length lines appear different in length** due to arrow-like figures at their ends. * Outward Arrows: **Lines seem longer**, as if extending toward us. * Inward Arrows: **Lines seem shorter**, as if extending away from us.

Question 113

# 9A Errors of sight What psychological factors does the Muller-Lyer Illusion Encompass

Answer 113

1. **Psychological Factors** * include the **Carpentered world hypothesis** refering to how our **experience with 3D environments affects our 2D perception.** 2. **Environmental/Social Factors** * **Social and cultural backgrounds** influence perception of such illusions. * **city residents** are more **susceptible** (likely to be affected by or to be influenced by Muller-Lyer) due to **exposure to more straight lines and angles**.

Question 114

# 9A Errors of sight Defines the **Ames Room Experiment**:

Answer 114

This illusion occurs when a person views two objects in a special Ames Room through a peephole using only one eye. The shape of these rooms have been **constructed in specific ways to trick our visual perceptual systems**.

Question 115

# 9A Errors of sight Identify the **Visual Cues represented in the Ames Room Experiment:**

Answer 115

The Ames Room manipulates some of our depth cues and visual constancies. 1. **Depth Cue**: * **Relative size**—objects appear different sizes because we perceive the room as normal-sized when it’s actually distorted. 2. **Visual Constancies**: * **Size Constancy**: We can't judge the true size of objects due to distorted distance. * **Shape Constancy**: The room appears rectangular, though it’s a trapezoid, affecting our perception of shape.

Question 116

# 9B Errors of Taste Define the **Fallibility of Gustatory Percpetion**:

Answer 116

The errors of taste and gustatory perception includes **being prone to error or experiencing difficulties in**... judgement looking closely at supertasters and being introduced to how miraculin works and how we judge flavours.

Question 117

# 9B Errors of Taste Define **Supertasters**:

Answer 117

Supertasters are **individuals** who have a **significantly higher number of taste buds** and a **lower threshold for taste stimuli**. This **heightened sensitivity** results in **more intense taste experiences**. Unlike perceptual distortions, which are errors in interpreting sensory stimuli, the heightened taste perception of supertasters is a **result of biological differences and is accurate.**

Question 118

# 9B Errors of Taste Define **Miraculin**:

Answer 118

Miraculin is a **protein** **from** the '**miracle berry**' that **alters taste perception** by **making sour foods taste sweet.**

Question 119

# 9B Errors of Taste How does **exposure to miraculin effect an individual**?

Answer 119

Exposure to miraculin causes sour foods to taste sweet by **binding to sweet taste buds** and **activating them in an acidic environment.** Miraculin works specifically by **altering taste perception** in acidic conditions, rather than **changing the actual flavor of the food.**

Question 120

# 9B Errors of Taste Define **Judgement of Flavours**:

Answer 120

Judgment of flavors refers to the **process of interpreting** and assessing the **taste qualities of food** based on **sensory input**. This **involves recognizing** **and categorizing** **tastes** such as sweet, sour, salty, and bitter, and **combining these perceptions to form an overall experience of flavor**. It includes the **integration of taste, smell, and sometimes texture to evaluate** and **respond** to what is being **consumed**.

Question 121

# 9B Errors of Taste Define **Perceptual Set**:

Answer 121

A perceptual set refers to a **predisposition to perceive certain sensory stimulus** features **and ignore other features** of the stimulus **deemed irrelevant.**

Question 122

# 9B Errors of Taste What can **Perceptual Sets lead to**?

Answer 122

Perceptual Sets can lead to **perceptual distortions** in the **way we taste**. E.g. tasting something more or less intensely than it actually is due to the food's appearance or packaging.

Question 123

# 9B Errors of Taste How does **colour intensity influence flavour judgment**?

Answer 123

The intensity of a food’s color can lead to **perceptual distortions in flavor judgment.** Often, food with a more **intense color is perceived to have a stronger flavour**, even if that’s not true. This perception is **related to our perceptual set**, where past experiences lead us to expect that brighter colors indicate more ripe or intensely flavored food.

Question 124

# 9B Errors of Taste How does **texture influence flavor judgment?**

Answer 124

Texture impacts flavor intensity because it determines **how much food reaches our taste receptors** and **how long it stays in the mouth**. Texture can also influence enjoyment **based on expectations and past experiences with how a food should feel.** For example, creamier foods stay in the mouth longer, allowing for more taste.

Question 125

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Perceptual**:

Answer 125

Perceptual refers to the ability to interpret or **become aware of something through the senses.**

Question 126

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Distortions**:

Answer 126

Distortions refers to a **change to the intended** or true **meaning of something.**

Question 127

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Agnosia**:

Answer 127

Agnosia refers to a **disorder** involving the loss or **impairment of the ability to recognise familiar stimuli** through the **use of one or more senses**, despite the **senses functioning normally otherwise.** In other words, people with agnosia experience difficulty identifying sensory information, such as objects in their environment. This often occurs as the **result of a brain lesion**.  E.g. visual agnosia is commonly associated with lesions in areas of the brain that are responsible for processing visual information.

Question 128

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Identify the **types of Visual Agnosia**:

Answer 128

1. **Associative** Visual Agnosia 2. **Apperceptive** Visual Agnosia

Question 129

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Associative Visual Agnosia**:

Answer 129

Associative visual agnosia is a **condition** where an individual has **difficulty identifying what an object is** despite **having normal visual perception** and being able to **recognize its individual visual elements**. The main issue is the **inability to link prior experiences or knowledge to the object they are viewing.** | (not malfunctioning just an error)

Question 130

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Apperceptive Visual Agnosia**:

Answer 130

Apperceptive visual agnosia is a **condition** where an individual has **difficulty perceiving visual information despite having an intact mental understanding of what objects look like**. They **struggle to identify objects** even though their vision is otherwise functioning normally. | (not malfunctioning just an error)

Question 131

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Synaesthesia**:

Answer 131

Synaesthesia refers to a **perceptual phenomenon** where activation of **one sensory system** leads to **unusual perceptions in another sensory system**, such as seeing colors when hearing specific sounds (e.g., seeing green when hearing an F#).

Question 132

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Identify **Characteristics of Synaesthesia**:

Answer 132

Characteristics of synaesthesia include: 1. **Automatic**: Cannot be controlled. 2. **One-way process**: Typically, the crossover is one-directional (e.g., seeing purple when looking at the number 8, but not the other way around). 3. **Consistent**: The experience is usually stable over time. 4. **Unique**: Varies from person to person.

Question 133

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Identify and explain **key types of Synaesthesia**:

Answer 133

1. **Grapheme-colour**: occurs when a person sees colours when looking at ordinary symbols such as numbers and letters. 2. **Sound-colour**: occurs when sounds cause the secondary perception of colours e.g. seeing red when hearing a car horn. 3. **Lexical-gustatory**: when seeing a certain word causes a taste to be triggered e.g. tasting garlic when reading the word 'train'.

Question 134

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Spatial Neglect**:

Answer 134

Spatial neglect is an **inability to perceive, report, or orient sensory information located within one side of space.** E.g. only perceiving sensory information from either the left or right side of the environment.

Question 135

# 9C Perceptual Distortions What is **spatial neglect**?

Answer 135

Spatial neglect is a condition where individuals have **difficulty perceiving one side of space**, despite **having normal senses.**

Question 136

# 9C Perceptual Distortions How is **spatial neglect related to brain lesions**?

Answer 136

Spatial neglect is often **caused by brain lesions**. The side of space affected depends on the location of the lesion: a lesion in the right hemisphere typically impacts the left field of vision, and vice versa. This neglect **occurs contralaterally**, meaning the **neglected side is opposite to the side of the brain with the lesion.**

Question 137

# 9C Perceptual Distortions Define **Brain lesions**:

Answer 137

Brain lesions are **damaged areas of brain tissue caused by injury**, disease, or stroke that disrupt normal brain function.