Attachment Flashcards
(90 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of attachment?
A
an emotional bond between two people. It is a two-way process (reciprocal) that endures overtime. It leads to certain behaviours such as clinging, proximity seeking, and serves the function of protecting an infant.
2
Q
What is the definition of proximity?
A
Staying physically close to those whom they attached
3
Q
What is the definition of separation distress?
A
When an attachment figure leaves their presence
4
Q
What is the definition of secure base behaviour?
A
Even when independent of our attachment figures, we tend to make regular contact with them
5
Q
What is the definition of interactional synchrony?
A
When two people interact, they tend to mirror what the other person is doing in terms of the facial and body movement. This includes imitating emotions and behaviours described as synchrony when (two or more) things make the same pattern
6
Q
What is the definition of reciprocity?
A
Caregiver infant interaction is a two way/mutual process. Each party responds to the others signals to sustain interaction (turn taking). The behaviour of each party elicits a response from the other.
7
Q
What do babies’ periodic ‘alert phases’ signal?
A
that they are ready for interaction
8
Q
According to Feldman and Eidelman (2007), how often do mothers typically pick up on and respond to infant alertness?
A
around two-thirds of the time
9
Q
What did Brazleton et al. (1975) find?
A
that both the mother and child can initiate interactions and they appear to take turns doing so
10
Q
Why is Brazleton et al.’s research not fully practical?
A
some mothers might give more/less interaction/quality
11
Q
What did Isabella et al. (1989) study/observe?
A
Observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony and also the quality of mother-infant attachment. High levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment
12
Q
What did Isabella et al. (1989) find?
A
That securely attached mother-infant pairs had shown more instances of interactional synchrony in first year of life
13
Q
Key study
How did Melzoff and Moore (1977) carry out their investigation?
A
- Melzoff & Moore used a controlled observation.
- they selected four different stimuli (3 faces + 1 hand gesture) and observed the behaviour of infant’s response - responses were watched on videotapes in real time, slow motion, and framed by frame if needed
- independent observers (no knowledge of what observers had seen) judged the videos - double blind procedure - reduces investigators effects/researcher bias
- each observer scored the tapes twice - intra-observer + inter-observer reliability could be calculated
- all scores were above 0.92 (i.e. good inter/intra-observer reliability)
14
Q
What is intra-observer reliability?
A
consistency within the same observer
15
Q
what is inter-observer reliability?
A
consistency between different observers
16
Q
what is stages of attachment?
A
many developmental theories identify a sequence of qualitatively different behaviours lined to specific ages. In stages of attachment some characteristics of the infant’s behaviour towards others change as that infant gets older
17
Q
what is specific attachment?
A
showing signs of special preference for a single attachment figure, usually the mother. The baby looks to particular people for security, comfort and protection
18
Q
what is multiple attachments?
A
attachments to two or more people. Most babies appear to develop multiple attachments once they have formed one true attachment to a main carer
19
Q
what is separation anxiety?
A
distress levels increase when separated from an attachment figure, degree of comfort is needed upon return
20
Q
what is stranger anxiety?
A
the anxiety response to the arrival of a stranger. An infant’s response to an unfamiliar adult
21
Q
key study
what was the aim of Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
to assess whether there was a pattern of attachment formation that was common to all infants. To identify and describe the distinct stages by which attachment develops
22
Q
key study
what was the procedure of Schaffer and Emerson’s study?
A
- a longitudinal study on 60 new born babies (31 male, 29 female) and their mothers from a working-class area of Glasgow
- studied at monthly intervals for first year of life, then again at 18 months
- babies’ interactions with carers were observed in their homes, and carers interviewed about babies’ responses
23
Q
Key study
What improved Schaffer and Emerson’s study’s reliability and validity?
A
triangulation - interviews and observations, i.e. more than one researcher method
24
Q
key study
what did Schaffer and Emerson (1964) find as evidence for the development of an attachment?
A
that the baby showed separation anxiety after a carer left, and stranger anxiety when a researcher
approached
25
Key study
What is stage 1 of attachment according to Schaffer and Emerson?
asocial stage (first few weeks) —babies behaviour towards non-human objects and humans is quite similar. Not really asocial as bay is forming bonds with carers but Schaffer and Emerson used this term
26
key study
What is stage 2 of attachment according to Schaffer and Emerson?
Indiscriminate attachment (2-7 months) - The new born is predisposed to attach to any human. Most babies respond equally to any caregiver. They do not show separation or stranger anxiety
27
Key study
What is stage 3 of attachment according to Schaffer and Emerson?
Specific/Discrimination attachment (after 7 months) - special preference for a single attachment figure. The baby looks to particular people for security, comfort and protection. It shows fear of strangers and unhappiness when separated from a special person. Some babies show stranger fear and separation anxiety much more frequently and intensely than others, but nevertheless they are seen as evidence that the bay has formed an attachment. This has usually developed by one year of age.
28
key study
what is stage 4 of attachment according to Schaffer and Emerson?
Multiple attachments - soon after the main attachment is formed, the infant also develops a wider circle of multiple attachments depending on how many consistent relationships he/she has had. The baby becomes increasingly independent and forms several attachments. By the age of about 1 year the majority of infants had developed multiple attachments. At 18 months 87% had at least two attachments, with 31% having five or more attachments. 29% of infants’ prime attachment was not to the main carer. The mother was the main attachment figure for 65% of the children at 18 months old, and in a further 30% the mother was the first joint object of attachment. Fathers were rarely the first solo object of attachment (3%), but 27% of them were the joint first object.
29
Key study
What difference did Schaffer and Emerson find between strongly and weakly attached infants with mothers?
Strongly attached infants had mothers who responded to their needs quickly and gave more opportunities for interaction. Weakly attached infants had mothers who responded less quickly and gave fewer opportunities for interaction.
30
key study
What Schaffer and Emerson’s conclusions?
What did they call this?
there is a pattern of attachment formation common to all infants, which suggests the process is biologically controlled. The results of the study indicated that attachments were most likely to form with those who responded accurately to the baby’s signals, not the person they spent the most time with.
They called this sensitive responsiveness.
31
key study
What is the most important fact in forming attachments according to Schaffer and Emerson?
the most important fact in forming attachments is not who feeds and changes the child but who plays and communicates with him or her. Multiple attachments are the norm and of similar quality, which opposes Bowlby’s idea that attachments are a hierarchy of one prime attachment and other minor attachments. Schaffer commented that there is nothing to suggest that mothering cannot be shared by several people.
32
what is social-desirability?
answering/responding in a way you think is socially acceptable
E.g. mothers saying they absolutely take care of their child/ren
33
what did the Grossman study suggest about the role of the father?
1) mother-infant attachment leads to good parent-teen relationship
2) father-infant attachment does not necessarily lead to good parent-teen relationship, but they have different role e.g. play/stimulation
34
is there a biological difference for the role of the father?
women have more oestrogen than men. This hormone underlies caring behaviour in women and the lack of oestrogen in men might explain why why they are unable to form a close attachment
35
what did Hardy (1999) find about the role of fathers?
that fathers were less able to detect low levels of infant distress in comparison to mothers
36
how are fathers as primary caregivers?
they can respond to the infant’s needs and be nurturing, just like mothers E.g. smiling, imitating and holding baby
37
what procedure did Field (1978) to study fathers as primary caregivers?
filmed 4-month-old babies with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers, and primary caregiver fathers. Key to attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness, not gender. Fathers can be the more nurturing attachment figure.
38
What did Belsky et al. (2009) find about the role of the father?
males with higher levels of marital intimacy displayed secure father-infant attachment, whereas males with lower levels of marital intimacy displayed insecure father-infant attachment
39
What is biological determinism?
behaviour is controlled by internal or external forces over which we have no control. Biological determinism refers to the idea that all human behaviour is innate and controlled
40
what are the economic implications of research into the role of the father in attachment?
- more fathers at home means they contribute less to the economy — however more mothers may return to work, contributing to the economy
- changing laws for parternity leave are government-funded so affects the economy
- impact on employers
- gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are seen as more equal
- early attachment research e.g. Bowlby suggests fathers should provide an economic rather than emotional function
41
What is ethology?
the scientific and objective study of non-human animal behaviour with a focus on behaviour as an evolutionary adaptive trait, under natural conditions
42
what is imprinting?
an innate readiness to acquire certain behaviours during a critical or sensitive period of development
43
What is sexual imprinting?
acquiring a template of the characteristics of a desirable mate
44
what is the critical period?
the time within which an attachment must form if it is to form at all
45
what is the critical/sensitive period in humans?
2 - 2½ years
46
Key Study
What was the aim of Lorenz’s study (1935)?
to investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where the youngsters follow and form an attachment to the first large moving object that they meet
47
key study
Who were the ppts of Lorenz’s study (1935)?
greylag goose eggs - randomly split into two groups
48
Key study
What was the procedure of Lorenz’s study (1935)?
large clutch of greylag goose eggs randomly split into 2 batches - one was hatched naturally by the mother, the other in an incubator with Lorenz being the first large moving object the goslings encountered.
The behaviour of following was recorded.
Lorenz marked all the goslings so he knew which ones were hatched naturally or not, then placed them all under one upturned box. The box was removed and following behaviour recorded again.
49
key study
What do Lorenz do in variations of his study?
-Why?
Lorenz varied the time between birth and seeing a moving object for the first time
- so he could measure the critical period of imprinting
50
key study
What were the findings of Lorenz’s study (1935)?
- immediately after birth, naturally hatched goslings followed their mother, whilst incubator goslings followed Lorenz
- the same applied when released from the upturned box
- the incubator goslings showed no bond to their natural mother
- these bonds proved irreversible
-the critical period was between 4 and 25 hours after hatching
- goslings imprinted onto humans would attempt to mate with humans as adults
51
Key study
What were the conclusions of Lorenz’s study (1935)?
- imprinting is a form of attachment
- it supports the view that having a biological basis for an attachment is adaptive as it promotes survival
- humans are born immobile so therefore there is less call for them to form an attachment straight away unlike the goslings, so this develops later (8-9 months)
- it supports the view that early attachment experiences do predict future bonds
52
key study
Why have some of Lorenz’s findings been questioned?
Guiton et al. (1966) found that chickens imprinted onto humans a yellow glove and would later try to mate with it, however, this could be reversed
I.e. imprinting is irreversible, while sexual imprinting is reversible
53
key study
What was the aim of Harlow’s study (1959)?
To test learning theory by comparing attachment behaviour in baby monkeys given a wire surrogate mother producing milk with those given a soft towelling mother producing no milk
54
key study
Who were the ppts in Harlow’s study (1959)?
8 rhesus monkeys
55
key study
What was the procedure of Harlow’s study (1959)?
The monkeys were caged from infancy with wire mesh food dispensing and cloth-covered surrogate mothers.
Harlow measured the amount of time that the monkeys spent with each surrogate mother, and the amount of time the monkeys cried for their biological mothers
56
key study
What were the findings of Harlow’s study (1959)?
- monkeys showed attachment behaviours towards a cloth-covered surrogate mother when frightened, rather than a food dispensing mother
- monkeys were willing to explore a room with new toys when the cloth-covered surrogate was present, but displayed phobic responses only when the food dispensing surrogate was present
- monkeys that were brought up in a social environment developed into healthy adults, whilst monkeys in isolation all displayed dysfunctional adult behaviour
57
key study
How did monkeys brought up in isolation show dysfunctional adult behaviours in Harlow’s study?
- being timid
- unpredictable with other monkeys
- they had difficulty mating
- the females were inadequate mothers
58
key study
What were the conclusions of Harlow’s study (1959)?
- rhesus monkeys have an innate, unlearned need for for contact comfort
- attachment concerns social security more than food
- contact comfort is associated with lower levels of stress and more willingness to explore - i.e. emotional security
- it supports the view that early attachment experiences predict long-term social development
59
What is learning theory?
a set of theories from the behaviourist approach to psychology, that emphasises the role of learning in the acquisition of behaviour
60
what is classical conditioning?
learning by association. Occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone.
61
what is operant conditioning?
a form of learning in which behaviour is maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
62
what is cupboard love theory?
learning theory Dollard and Miller (1950) proposed the caregiver-infant attachment can be explained by learning theory. Their approach is sometimes called the ‘cupboard love’ because it emphasises the importance of the caregiver as a provider of food. A child learns to love whoever feeds them.
63
what is primary drive?
innate drives (motivators) such as food and water. Primary reinforcer is food .
64
What is secondary drive?
learned drives (motivators) acquired through association with a primary drive, such as money that enables primary drives to be satisfied. Secondary reinforcer is the mother.
65
What is the process of attachment according to learning theory?
the baby must learn to form an attachment with its mother
66
what is the process of classical conditioning according to classical conditioning?
- the baby forms an association between a mother (NS) and the feeling of being happy when comforted by food (UCS)
- each time the baby is fed, the mother is there too, so the baby learns to associate the mother with the pleasure of being fed
- the mother (CS) stimulates the pleasure on her own without food
The baby then feels pleasure (CR) when the mother is around
67
What is the process of attachment according to operant conditioning?
- the mother rewards the baby by feeding him, so associates the mother with the reward of being fed
- the baby repeats any action that brings her close (to bring a feeling of happiness)
- food is the primary reinforcer as it makes the baby feel comfortable again after being hungry (drive reduction)
- by removing the discomfort of hunger for the baby (negative reinforcement) it reinforces the behaviour that led to its arrival
- food doesn’t come without the mother, so the mother becomes the secondary reinforcer (even without bringing food)
- the presence of the mother reduces any discomfort, so the bay will repeat any behaviour to bring the mother close (e.g. crying)
68
what are the 5 key assumptions of Bowlby’s theory (1969)?
adaptive, social releases, critical period, monotropy, internal working model
69
In Bowlby’s theory of attachment, how is the key assumption of adaptation explained?
- sometimes referred to as evolutionary theory
- human behaviour and phenomena can be explained by the process of natural selection
- attachment is a vital adaptive quality / advantage that has evolved to increase our chance of survival through proximity-seeking behaviour
70
In Bowlby’s theory of attachment, how is the key assumption of social releasers explained?
- a social behaviour or characteristic that elicited a care-giver reaction
- babies are predisposed to smile, coo and grip to encourage adults to give them attention which will help them survive
- attachment is a reciprocal process
71
In Bowlby’s theory of attachment, how is the key assumption of the critical period explained?
- ~2–2.5 years in humans
- it is actually more of a sensitive period
- if an infant doesn’t form an attachment in this time, it will fid it much harder to form one later
- a child is maximally sensitive at age 2
- this is practically useful for adoption agencies and orphanages
72
In Bowlby’s theory of attachment, how is the key assumption of monotropy explained?
- places great emphasis on a child’s attachment to one (mono) particular caregiver who is different or more important than others
- the more time spent with primary attachment figure, the better
- the law of continuity — the more constant and predicable a child’s care, the better quality of their attachment
- the law of accumulated separation — the effects of every separation from the mother add up, so ‘the safest dose is zero dose’
This is socially sensitive research
73
In Bowlby’s theory of attachment, how is the key assumption of the internal working model explained?
- attachment to primary care-giver provides a child with a schema/understanding of relationships
- this acts as a template for future relationships
- someone with a positive internal working model will become a consistent/sensitive/responsive caregiver; someone with a negative internal working model will become an inconsistent caregiver or neglectful
74
what is the Strange Situation (SS)?
a controlled observation designed to test attachment security. Infants are assessed on the response to playing in an unfamiliar room, being left alone, left with a stranger and being reunited with a caregiver. It is an assessment tool to measure attachment types
75
what is type B attachment?
secure attachment
76
what is secure attachment (type B)?
generally thought of as the most desirable attachment type, associated with psychologically healthy outcomes. in the SS, this is shown by moderate stranger and separation anxiety and ease and comfort at reunion.
77
what is type A attachment?
insecure avoidant attachment
78
what is insecure avoidant attachment?
an attachment characterised by low anxiety but weak attachment. in the SS, this is shown by low stranger and separation anxiety and little response to reunion - an avoidance of the caregiver
79
what is type C attachment?
insecure resistant attachment
80
what is insecure resistant attachment?
an attachment characterised by strong attachment and high anxiety. In the SS, this is shown by high levels of stranger and separation anxiety and by resistance to be comforted at reunion
81
what was the aim of Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970)?
to systematically test the nature of attachment and to see how infants behave under mild stress and novelty
82
what was the procedure of Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970)?
- controlled observation with one-way mirror/video recording (to allow independent observers to review the observations)
- 100 middle-class, white, American mothers with their mothers
- 8 episodes (3 mins each), each designed to highlight certain behaviours such as separation anxiety, reunion behaviour, stranger anxiety and secure base concept
- time sampling with behavioural categories
83
what were the 8 episodes in Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation?
1. parent and infant play
2. parent sits while infant plays
3. stranger enters and talks to parent
4. parent leaves, infant plays, stranger offers comfort if needed
5. parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort if needed, stranger leaves
6. parent leaves, infant alone
7. stranger enters and offers comfort
8. parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort
84
what behaviours were being looked for in each of the episodes in Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation?
1. parent and infant play - N/A
2. parent sits while infant plays - SECURE BASE BEHAVIOUR
3. stranger enters and talks to parent - STRANGER ANXIETY
4. parent leaves, infant plays, stranger offers comfort if needed - SEPARATION ANXIETY
5. parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort if needed, stranger leaves - REUNION BEHAVIOUR
6. parent leaves, infant alone - SEPARATION ANXIETY
7. stranger enters and offers comfort - STRANGER ANXIETY
8. parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort - REUNION BEHAVIOUR
85
(findings) - what % of infants had (type B) secure attachments, and what behaviour pattern did they display in Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970)?
- 66%
- infant showed high willingness to explore, moderate stranger and separation anxiety, enthusiastic behaviour at reunion
86
(findings) - what % of infants had (type A) insecure avoidant attachments, and what behaviour pattern did they display in Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970)?
- 22%
- infant showed high willingness to explore, low stranger and separation anxiety, avoided contact at reunion
87
(findings) - what % of infants had (type C) insecure resistant attachments, and what behaviour pattern did they display in Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970)?
- 12%
- infant showed low willingness to explore, high stranger and separation anxiety, seeks and rejects at reunion
88
what was the behaviour like of mothers towards their infant for each type of attachment in Ainsworth's Strange Situation?
- secure =>sensitive and supportive
- insecure avoidant => rejected/ignored infant
- insecure resistant => inconsistent
89
what causes differences in attachment types, according to Ainsworth?
1) mothers who are more sensitive to the infant's moods and needs will produce babies who are securely attached, whilst the opposite is said for mothers who are less sensitive/responsive to their babies, as the infant is unsure whether their needs would be met at any time
2) children are born with innate temperamental differences, so children who have an 'easy' temperament (eat and sleep regularly and accepting of new experiences) may form more secure attachments than those who have a 'difficult' temperament (eat and sleep irregularly and reject new experiences) are more likely to form insecure relationships
90
How does Kagans’ theory of temperament affect Ainsworth’s Strange Situation?
an easy baby may show signs of secure attachment, which weakens the findings of Ainsworth’s study, as temperament could be a confounding variable
