Attachment Flashcards
(34 cards)
In caregiver-infant interactions in humans, whats reciprocity
Infancy refers to child’s first year, though some include a child’s second.
> One of key interactions w caregivers and infants is non-verbal communication,
without words and/or without sound.
>
> may form basis of attachment between. Its the way each respond to the other that determines formation of attachment
> the more sensitive each is to other’s signals, the deeper the relationship.
..
• Reciprocity
Research (1970s) demonstrated infants coordinated actions w caregivers in a convo way.
- From birth, babies move in a rhythm when interacting like taking turns, as ppl do in convos
- one person leans forward and speaks then its the other’s turn. (reciprocity.)
- Babies rapidly become communicative responding to parent’s actions or other environmental stimuli.
- A smile in contrast to a cry means it was good. Do it again.
- ## Smiling is reciprocity - when a smile occurs in one, triggers a smile in other.
- From age of one month, interactions between babies and parents become increasingly reciprocal,
- babies respond to parent’s behaviour and increasingly their actions.
How did brazelton study reciprocity
Brazelton (1979) suggested the basic rhythm of reciprocity
is an important prediction to later communications.
>
> Regularity of infant’s signals allows to predict infant’s behaviour to respond appropriate.
> This sensitivity to infant behaviour lays foundation for later attachment between caregiver and infant.
What was tronick et als research on reciprocity? And evaluation?
- The researchers asked mothers whod been enjoying a dialogue with their baby
- to stop moving and maintain a static, unsmiling expression on their faces.
-
> Babies would try to tempt the mother into interaction by smiling themselves,
> and wd become puzzled/increasingly distressed when their smile did not provoke the usual response.
> Thus, babies expect and anticipate concordant responses to their smiles.
..
• Evaluation
— ethical issues (distress)
+ BUT only for a short time and isnt worse than expected in real life
— unclear if baby expects or wants
(Subjective, so biased and lacks validity)
In caregiver-infant interactions in humans, whats interactional synchrony
- Interactional synchrony is an interaction between parent and child where
> partners share a mutual focus, mirror each other’s affect,
> exhibit high degree of reciprocity, and responsive to each others cues (Pasiak, 2011).
> As definition indicates, theres clear overlap between notions of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
>
> However key difference is timing, interactional synchrony means behaviour takes place at (or almost) same time
> Reciprocity = baby smiles then care giver talks to baby
> Interactional synchrony = baby and care giver smile at each other at same time
..
The importance of i. synchrony in attachment was demonstrated by Isabella et al. (1989),
- found that securely attached mother-infant pairs were those whod
- shown more instances of i. synchrony in home observations in the first year.
Meltzoff and moores research on interactional synchrony
Aim:
Conduct a controlled observation to investigate i synchrony of facial expressions in 2-and 3-week-old infants.
Procedure:
- Infants presented with three facial expressions (tongue protrusion, lip protrusion, open mouth)
- and one hand movement involving sequential finger movement.
- A dummy was in infant’s mouth to prevent movement before/during modelling of behaviour by adult.
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- After presentation of behaviour by model, the dummy was removed
- the immediate response/behaviour was recorded on a close-up video.
- Independent judges rated infants responses for likeness to any of four target behaviours.
- Raters were not aware of expression or movement infant was exposed to.
Findings:
- There was a significant association between model’s and infant’s behaviour,
- with infants imitating specific facial expressions or hand movements.
Conclusion:
- Very young infants spontaneously imitate facial/hand movements of adult models.
- The same effect was later demonstrated in infants of less than 3 days old.
Meltzoff and moores study evaluation
+ double blind (judges didnt know wch condition baby was in)
- so reduces demand characteristics
+ high control (lab experiment)
- so highly replicable with high external validity
— lacks internal validity (dummy in mouth)
- measures reciprocity
EVALUATION of caregiver-infant interactions in Humans
— Problems testing infant behaviour
- Many studies abt observing interactions of mothers and infants show same patterns of interaction.
- However, whats observed is merely hand movements/ changes in expression.
- hard to be certain, based on observations, whats happening from the infant’s pov.
> Is the imitation of adult signals conscious and deliberate?
> means cant know for sure behaviours seen here have special meaning.
..
— Failure to replicate
Other studies failed to replicate findings of research such as Meltzoff and Moore.
- Marian et al. conducted one; found infants cdn’t distinguish live from videotaped interactions w their mothers.
- suggests infants are actually not responding to adult.
- BUT, Marian et al. acknowledged the problem may lie w research procedure
- rather than the ability of infants to imitate their caregivers.
..
+ Cultural validity
Interactional synchrony is not related to security of attachment in all cultures.
- LeVine et al. showed mothers in Kenya rarely interact closely with their babies,
- even though they are attentive to their needs and have secure attachments.
Schaffer and emerson stages of attachment study
- babies have many skills and abilities and have innate behaviour to certain stimuli.
- though time after birth’s special for parents to bond with their baby,
- process of formation of attachments takes longer in human infants
> around 7/8 months before babies show first real attachments.
- - The stages of attachment were identified by Schaffer and Emerson
- in longitudinal study of babies from working-class area of Glasgow
..
Aim:
To investigate formation of early attachments; mainly the age
They developed emotional intensity and to whom.
Procedure:
- involved 60 babies - 31 male, 29 female. - from Glasgow and most were from skilled working-class families.
-
- babies/mothers were visited every month for first year and at 18 months.
- asked mothers questions abt kind of protest their babies showed
- in 7 everyday separations (adult leaving room, measures separation anxiety)
> designed to measure the infant’s attachment.
- also assessed stranger anxiety - infant’s anxiety response to unfamiliar adults.
Findings:
- between 25 and 32 weeks abt 50% of babies showed signs of separation anxiety
- towards a particular adult, usually mother (specific attachment).
- Attachment was to caregiver who was most interactive
- and sensitive to infant signals and facial expressions (i.e, reciprocity).
> not necessarily person with whom infant spent most time.
By 40 weeks 80% of the babies had a specific attachment; almost 30% displayed multiple attachments.
What are the stages of attachment identified by schaffer
Based on the info they gathered on developing attachments, Schaffer and Emerson proposed attachments happen in 4 stages
• Pre-attachment stage (birth to 3 months)
- From six weeks, infants get attracted to other humans,
- demonstrated by their smiling at peoples faces.
• Indiscriminate attachment stage (3 to 7/8 months)
- Infants begin to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people,
- smiling more at known, though will let strangers to handle and look after them.
• Discriminate attachment stage (7/8 months onwards)
- Infants develop specific attachments, staying close to particular people
- and becoming distressed when separated from them.
- avoid unfamiliar people and protest if strangers try to handle them.
• Multiple attachments stage (9 months onwards)
- Infants form strong emotional ties with other major caregivers,
> grandparents, and non-caregivers, like other children.
- The fear of strangers weakens, but attachment to mother figure remains strongest.
EVALUATION of stages identified by Schaffer
— Unreliable data
The data collected by Schaffer and Emerson may be unreliable
- because was based on mothers’ reports of their infants.
- Some mothers were less sensitive to their infants’ protests
- so were less likely to report
> would create a systematic bias wch challenges validity of data.
— Biased sample
- from a working-class population and findings may apply to that group only
- Second, sample was from 1960s. Parental care has changed since that time.
- More women work so many children are cared for outside home,
- or fathers stay at home and become the main carer.
- Research shows number of dads who choose to stay to care for families has quadrupled over the past 25 years
— Stage theories
- Using stage theories is inflexible.
- In the case of the stage theory of attachment, it suggests normally specific attachments come before multiple
- In some sits and cultures multiple attachments may come first.
> The problem is this becomes a standard; families are judged and may be classed as abnormal,
What are multiple attachments
It is not disputed that most children form multiple attachments, emotional bonds with several.
- But whats disputed is relative importance of diff attachment figures.
John Bowlby believed children had one primary attachment
- and that although children had attachments to other people,
- these were of minor importance compared to main attachment bond.
-
However, Rutter (1995) proposed a model of multiple attachments
- as of equal importance, with these attachments combining together
- to help form a child’s internal working model
Multiple attachments are often formed to diff people for diff purposes,
>for example to mother for loving care, but additionally
> to father for exciting unpredictable play. Other attachments are often formed to grandparents, siblings and childminders.
Whats the role of the father
Traditionally fathers were seen to have played a minor role in how children are raised
- some would argue males are biologically unsuitable to raise children.
- In past children were raised mainly by married couples,
- with father going to work to provide resources for his family, while mother stayed at home to look after children
»But society has changed a lot. Its the norm now for mothers to have a job.
In 2013 5.3 million British mothers were in employment, with males comprising nearly 10% of those who care for children while their partner goes out to work.
Another interesting statistic is that 9% of British single parents (186,000) are male. Evidently many men are having a much bigger role in parenting than before.
Whats what grossman’s AND tiffany field’s research on the role of the father
Grossman (2002)
a longitudinal study looking at both parents’ behaviour and its relationship
- to the quality of children’s attachments into their teens.
>Quality of infant attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to children’s attachments in adolescence,
>suggesting father attachment was less important.
>
> However, quality of fathers’ play with infants was related to quality of adolescent attachments.
> fathers have a different role in attachment
- more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with nurturing.
..
Tiffany Field (1978)
filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interaction w primary caregiver mothers,
secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers.
- Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary
- This behaviour appears to be important in building an attachment with infant.
>
>So it seems fathers can be more nurturing attachment figures.
>The key to the attachment relationship is level of responsiveness not gender of the parent.
EVALUATION of multiple attachments and the role of the father
—Are multiple attachments equivalent?
- One discussion relating to multiple attachment is whether
- all attachments are equivalent / one or two have some special significance.
-
- Bowlby’s view was that an infant forms one special emotional relationship.
- are many other secondary attachments; are important as emotional safety net,
- and also important for other’s needs.
>eg father offer a special kind of care and relationships w siblings are important in how to negotiate with peers.
-
+BUT Rutter argued all attachment figures are equivalent; believes all attachments
- are integrated to produce an infant’s attachment type.
- can be argued that children w multiple attachments are at an advantage;
- more able to form and conduct social relationships, as have the experience
- if a child loses an attachment figure, it has several others that it can turn to.
..
—Are there diffs between mother and father caregiving?
- Theres evidence men are indeed less sensitive to infant cues than mothers (heerman)
-
+ BUT, Frodi showed videotapes of infants crying and found no diffs in physiological responses of men and women.
..
— Inconsistent findings on fathers
Research into the role of fathers in attachment is confusing
- diff researchers are interested in different research questions.
- On one hand, some psychologists are interested in understanding the role fathers have as secondary figures
- whereas others are concerned w father as primary attachment figure.
>
> The former saw fathers behaving diff from mothers w a distinct role.
> The latter found fathers can take on a ‘maternal” role
> problem aspsychologists cant easily answer what is the role of a father?
Lorenzs study
- in mang species attachments are formed soon after birth.
- process was first investigated Lorenz, who studied animal behaviour.
- In his observations he noticed newborn animals follow the first large moving object they saw after birth (mother)
> and to attach themselves to it.
..
• Procedure:
- took a clutch of gosling eggs and divided into two groups.
- one group left with mother; others placed in incubator
- When incubator eggs hatched the first living (moving) thing they saw was Lorenz
- they soon started following him around.
-
To test this effect of imprinting
- Lorenz marked the two groups to distinguish and placed together
- Lorenz and their natural mother were present.
..
Findings:
- The goslings quickly divided themselves,
- one following their natural mother and other group following Lorenz.
- Lorenz’s brood showed no recognition of their natural mother.
-
- Lorenz found this process of imprinting is restricted to a definite period of young animal’s life, critical period.
- If young animal is not exposed to a moving object during critical period
- the animal will not imprint. This suggests animals can imprint on a persistently present moving object seen within its first two days.
Whats imprinting in lorenzs study and long lasting effects of not imprinting
Imprinting is a process similar to attachment in
>it binds a young animal to a caregiver in a special relationship.
>
Lorenz did observe that imprinting to humans doesnt occur in some animals,
Eg. curlews will not imprint on
a human
Long-lasting effects:
- Lorenz (1952) noted several features of imprinting, eg the process is irreversible and long lasting
- Lorenz described how one of his geese, Martina, slept on his bed every night.
-
- Lorenz also noted early imprinting had an effect on later mate preferences, called sexual imprinting
> Animals (especially birds) choose to mate with same kind of object upon wch they were imprinted.
Harlows study
RESEARCH - Harlow (1959)
• Aim:
To study behaviour of infant monkeys separated from mothers at birth to test effects of separation.
• Procedure:
- Harlow made two wire mothers with a diff ‘head’. One was wrapped in soft cloth. - Eight infant rhesus monkeys were studied for 165 days.
> For four of them the milk bottle was on the cloth-covered mother,
> and on plain wire mother for the other four monkeys.
-
- measurements were made of amount of time each infant spent with the two diff ‘mothers’.
- Observations were made of responses when frightened by eg a mechanical teddy bear.
• Findings:
- All eight monkeys spent most of their time with cloth-covered mother
> whether or not had the feeding bottle.
- The monkeys who fed from wire mother spent a short time getting milk
- then returned to cloth-covered mother.
-
- When frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother,
- when playing with new objects monkeys kept a foot on the cloth-covered mother
>seemingly for reassurance.
The findings say infants dont develop attachment to one who feeds them
but to the person offering contact comfort.
What were long lasting effects and critical period in Harlows study
Harlow (1959) continued to study his rhesus monkeys as they grew up
>and noted consequences of their early attachment experiences.
- these monkeys, even those who had contact comfort, developed abnormally
- Were socially abnormal; froze or fled when approached by other monkeys
- were sexually abnormal; didnt cradle own babies and had abnormal mating behaviour
Like Lorenz, Harlow also found that there was a critical period for these effects.
- If the motherless monkeys spent time with their monkey ‘peers’
- seemed to recover but only if before three months old.
- Having more than six months with only a wire mother was something they did not appear able to recover from
AO3 of Harlows study
— lack of standardisation
- methodological problems
- HARLOWS heads were diff wch didnt seem important at the time
— ethics?
- couldnt consent
- psychological harm in HARLOWS; isolated from mothers and deliberate frightened
+ extrapolation (life applications)
- HARLOW said could apply animals studies to humans
- as rhesus monkeys are one of genetically closest close to humans
> experience attachment and dependent on parent so alike in this sense
- so allows research we cannot w humans
-
— BUT cant apply to humans
- not the same as brain struc is vastly superior and complex/develop compared
- we have higher cognition levels than monkeys
+ critical period evidence
- in humans bowlbys monotropic theory says if we have no attachment by 3 yrs
- there are consequences just like in HARLOWS
Evaluation of Lorenzs study
+ research support
- Guiton found chicks exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding
- had imprinted on the gloves
> so supports what lorenz said abt imprinting on first moving thing present
- male chicks tried to mate with the gloves
»_space; so is linked to reproductive behaviour
+ critical period research support
- bowlbys monotropic theory
- also in HARLOWS
Whats the learning theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment (classical conditioning)
It proposes all behaviour is learned rather than innate
- children are born blank slates
- everything the become’s explained in terms of their experiences
-
- learning theorists (behaviourists) focus explanations on behaviour
- not whats going on in their minds
> suggest all behaviours learned through conditioning
..
Attachment by classical conditioning
• [before conditioning]
food (UCS) > happy (UCR)
• [during]
mother (NS) is associated with UCS > happy (UCR)
• [after conditioning]
mother (CS) > happy (CR)
Classical conditioning is learning through association;
NS consistently paired with UCS;
takes on CS’s properties
Whats the learning theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment (operant conditioning)
Its learning through reinforcement; behaviour becomes more likely as outcome is reinforced/rewarded;
Involves learning depending on consequences/response
Its NEGATIVE reinforcement
• Infant experiences hunger; discomfort drives it to make noise (behaviour)
• comfort provided by food (reward)
•
• mother is source of food (reward) so infant is motivated to be with mother to stop hunger
• attachment forms
Evaluation of learning theory of attachment
— contact comfort is more important than food
- theres evidence against theory to show feeding has no importance in attachment
- HARLOWS STUDY shows attachment to wire mother that provided contact comfort
+ BUT with animals so doesnt have relevance
..
+ has some explanatory power
- not complete explanation but infants DO learn through association/reinforcement
- attention and responsiveness are the rewards not food
> responsiveness is something infants imitate so learn to conduct relationships
— bowlbys monotropic theory; internal working model
..
— ignores other factors associated with forming attachments
- Research abt early infant-caregiver interaction suggests quality of attachment
- is associated w factors like developing reciprocity and good levels of i synchrony.
-
- also, studies show the best quality attachments are w sensitive carers
- wch pick up infant signals and respond appropriately.
What is bowlbys monotropic theory (monotropy)
Lorenz’s research on imprinting made Bowlby assume a similar process was in humans
- Attachment behaviour evolved as it serves an important survival function
> an infant attached is less well protected.
- Our distant infant ancestors wdve been in danger if didnt stay close to adult.
-
- Its important attachments are formed in two directions
- parents must also be attached to infants to ensure theyre cared for so survive.
- only parents who look after offspring are likely to produce more generations.
..
• Monotropy
- Bowlby’s theorys monotropic as he placed emphasis on child’s attachment to one particular caregiver
- attachment to this caregiver is diff/more important than others.
-
- he called this the ‘mother’ ; was clear it need not be biological mother.
- the more time spent with the ‘mother’/primary attachment figure the better.
»_space; He put forward two principles to clarify this
•
• The law of continuity stated the more constant and predictable a child’s care,
the better the quality of their attachment.
•
• The law of accumulated separation stated the effects of every separation
from mother add up ‘so safest dose is therefore a zero dose’.
