Atypical gender development

Question 1

Gender dysphoria

Answer 1

Psychiatric condition listed in DSM-V. Individuals experience a sense of confusion about their gender because they have strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with their own.

Question 2

Transsexual gene (biological)

Answer 2

Hare et al., (2009) looked at the DNA of 112 MtF transsexuals and and found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene. The effect of this gene is reduced action of the male sex hormone testosterone, and this may have an effect on gender development in the womb (e.g., under-masculinising the brain).

Question 3

The brain-sex theory (biological)

Answer 3

Male and female brains are different and perhaps transsexual brains do not match their genetic sex. The BSTc, which is located in the thalamus, is on average, twice the size in heterosexual men as in heterosexual women and contains twice the amount of neurons.
The explanation for gender dysphoria is that the size of BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than biological sex. Two Dutch studies foudn that the number of neurons in the BSTc of MtF transsexuals was similar to that of females. The number of neurons in a FtM transsexual was found to be in the male range.

Question 4

Phantom limb and cross-wiring (biological)

Answer 4

Neuroscientist Ramachandrum (2008) suggested that gender dysphoria is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome. People who have a limb amputated often report they feel as if the limb was still there. Ramachandrum demonstrated that this occurs because the brain is cross-wired.
In the case of gender dysphoria, image of the sex organs is innately hardwired in the brain in a manner opposite to the person’s biological sex. Such cross-wiring means that some males feel they should not have a penis and some females may feel they should have one.

Question 5

Environmental effects - pesticides (biological)

Answer 5

Environmental pollution may be causing problems. The pesticide DDT contains oestrogens which may mean that males are prenatally exposed to unduly high levels of these female hormones causing a mismatch between genetic sex and hormonal influences.

Question 6

Mental illness (social)

Answer 6

Gender dysphoria is related to mental illness, which is in turn linked to maladaptive upbringing or childhood trauma. Coates et al., (1991) case study pf boy who developed gender dysphoria, a defensive reaction to boy’s mother’s depression following an abortion. Trauma occurred at age 3, when a child is particular sensitive to gender issues. Coates et al. suggest that the trauma may have led to a cross-gender fantasy as a means of resolving the ensuing anxiety.

Question 7

Mother-son relationships

Answer 7

Stoller (1975) proposed that gender dysphoria results from distorted parental attitudes. In clinical interviews with individuals diagnosed dysphoria, Stoller observed they displayed overly close and enmeshed mother-son relationships. This would likely lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity.

Question 8

Father-daughter relationships

Answer 8

In the case of FtM transsexuals, Zucker (2004) has suggested that females identify as males because of severe paternal rejection in early childhood. Unconsciously, they think that, if they become males, they might gain acceptance from their father.