Axial and appendicular skeleton (forelimb) Flashcards by Beth Finlay

Main joints of the forelimb

Shoulder
Elbow
Radio-ulna
Radiocarpal
Intercarpal
Carpo-metacarpal
Metacarpo-phalangeal
Interphalangeal

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Main joints of the hind limb

Sacro-iliac joint (covered)
Hip joint (covered)
Femorotibial joint
Tibia-fibula
Tibiotarsal
Intertarsal
Tarso-metatarsal
Metatarso-phalangeal
Interphalangeal

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Axial skeleton

Skull (and hyoid apparatus)
• Spinal column (made by vertebrae)
• Ribs
• Sternum (made by sternebrae)

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Appendicular skeleton dogs/cats

Forelimb
• Clavicle (cats only)
• Scapula
• Humerus
• Radius &amp; ulna
• Carpal bones (radiocarpal, ulnarcarpal, accessory, I, II III and IV)
• Metacarpal bones (I-V)
• Phalanges (within the digit) 1, 2 and 3. Each of the five digits has 3 phalanges (except digit 1, dew claw)

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Parts of the Skull

Cranium
• Maxilla
• Mandible
* Hyoid apparatus

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Function of the skull

To protect and house the brain
• Housing for the sense organs i.e. nose, ear, eye,
tongue
• To provide attachment for the mandible (lower jaw)
• To provide an attachment for the hyoid apparatus
• To attach the facial muscles
• To host teeth
• To attach larynx (part of the respiratory system) –
linked to hyoid apparatus

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Bones in the skull

Parietal (dorso-lateral walls)
• Occipital (caudo-ventral surface)
• Temporal (caudo-lateral wall) that link to the
zygomatic bones through the zygomatic arch
• Lacrimal (rostro-medial to the zygomatic arch)
• Palatine bone (ventro-medial to the zygomatic arch)

Sphenoid bones (caudo-medial to the zygomatic arch)
• Pterygoid (ventral to palatine and sphenoid)
• Basisphenoid (caudal to pterygoid)
• Incisive (rostral and ventral to the nasal bone)
• Nasal (dorsal to incisive and rostral to maxilla)

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Most joints in the skull are…

Most joints are fibrous (called sutures)

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Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is

synovial

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Each mandible joins by

mandibular symphysis

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Bony landmarks of clinical importance in the skull

Foramen magnum 
• Occipital condyles 
• Tympanic bulla
• Zygomatic arch
• Temporo-mandibular joints (TMJ)
• Orbit
• Occipital crest
• Mandible: ramus, angle of jaw and body

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Nasal passages and maxilla

Maxilla, palatine and incisive form hard palate
• Nasal chamber is divided by nasal septum
• Each chamber: turbinate bones (=conchae)
• Caudal of conchae: ethmoidal labyrinth

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conchae

a nasal concha (/ˈkɒnkə/), plural conchae (/ˈkɒnkiː/), also called a nasal turbinate or turbinal, is a long, narrow, curled shelf of bone that protrudes into the breathing passage of the nose in humans and various animals.

Conchae serve to increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and to disrupt the flow of air as it enters the nose, causing air to bounce along the epithelium, where it is cleaned and warmed.

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ethmoidal labyrinth

It consists of lateral series of tiny air chambers called ethmoid air cells. The ethmoid air cells are fluid-filled thin-walled cavities that are arranged into anterior, middle, and posterior clusters. They are involved in the warming and moistening of the inspired air.

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Hyoid apparatus

It is found at the cranial end of the neck region, just ventral to the skull
• Made up of a number of very small bones joined by cartilaginous joints
• Trapeze like structure
• Suspensory mechanism for the TONGUE and LARYNX, allowing the larynx to swing craniall

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Name parts of the Hyoid apparatus

Tympanohyoid cartilage
Stylohyoid
Epihyoid
Epiglottis 
Thyrohyoid
Ceratohyoid
Basihyoid

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Brachycephalic

literally means “short-headed,” explains the American College of Veterinary Surgeons. This term refers to dogs and dog breeds with shortened snouts.

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Mesocephalic

having a head of medium proportions, not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic

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Dolicocephalic

having a relatively long skull (typically with the breadth less than 80 (or 75) per cent of the length).

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Sinuses

Air filled cavities within a bone, lie within the facial bones of the skull
• Lined with ciliated epithelium and communicate with the nasal cavity

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The 2 sinuses are

Maxillary– not actually a true sinus but a recess at the
caudal end of the nasal cavity
• Frontal – lies within the frontal bone of the skull and can vary in size depending on the skull shape and age.

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Vertebral column

(spine) made of vertebrae - located in the midline of body from the base of the skull to the tail tip
Un-paired bones separated by intervertebral discs, approximately 50 irregular vertebrae

Protect the spinal cord
• Enable movement and posture
• Aid support of head
• Provide attachment for muscles

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How many cervical vertebrae in a dog//cat

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How many thoracic vertebrae in a dog/cat

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How many thoracic vertebrae in a dog/cat

How many lumbar. vertebrae in a dog/cat

How many sacral vertebrae in a dog/cat

How many coccygeal. vertebrae in a dog/cat

3-23

Vertebral anatomy

* All vertebrae have the same basic structure – with minor differences * Cylindrical body - bulk of the vertebra * Neural arch dorsally helps to form the vertebral foramen * Processes (dorsal, transverse and articular)

All the vertebral foramen form a tunnel like structure. What is the name of this ‘tunnel’ and what structure runs through it?

Spinal canal and the structure that runs through is the spinal cord

Intervertebral disc

between the bodies - prevents damage to the spinal cord (fibro cartilaginous ‘shock absorbers’) * The disc contains: * Annulus fibrosus • Nucleolus pulposu

Annulus fibrosus

outer tough fibrous connective tissue

Nucleolus pulposus

inner gelatinous core material

Name parts of the 13th thoracic vertebra of a dog

``` Articular processes Dorsal spinous process Transverse process Vertebral foramen Body ```

Name the muscle around the vertebrae

Epaxial | Hypaxial

Atlas – C1

* Unique in its shape: no body, no spinous process * It has 2 large transverse processes (look like wings) * Articulates with the skull (occipital condyles) * Allows up and down movement of the head

Axis – C2

* Elongated spinous process (looks like a spaceship!) - for the attachment of neck muscles and nuchal lig * Odontoid process is a projection of bone on the cranial aspect which articulates with the atlas * It acts as a pivot to allow rotation of the head

Cervical vertebrae | • C3, C4, C5, C6, C7

• Similar basic appearance with increasing length of spinous process

Nuchal ligament

a fibrous membrane, which, in the neck, represents the supraspinal ligaments of the lower vertebræ. It extends from the external occipital protuberance and median nuchal line to the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra.

Thoracic vertebrae

* Short bodies * Very distinctive tall spinous processes that gradually decrease in height * Transverse processes articulate with ribs

Lumbar vertebrae

* Longer bodies that increase in width through the series * Transverse processes are large & point cranio-ventrally (abdominal muscles are suspended from them) * Spinous processes point cranially

Sacrum

Three fused vertebrae - one rigid structure: SACRUM | • Articulates with the ilium of the pelvis forming the sacroiliac joint

Coccygeal vertebrae

* Vary in shape and number * Make up the tail * Progressively smaller and less complex

Ribs

13 pairs of ribs in the cat & dog • Protection of thorax • Bony dorsal part – articulates with vertebra

costal cartilage

Cartilaginous ventral part of ribs

Intercostal space

- between each rib and contains intercostals muscles.

sternal ribs

Ribs 1-8: costal cartilage joins with the sternum - attached to the sternum→

asternal ribs or false ribs

Ribs 9 – 12: just touch the costal cartilage of the rib in front of them – attached to costal arch

floating rib

Rib 13th rib: Does not articulate with the cartilage of the other ribs

Sternum

8 sternebrae, floor of the thorax • Sternebra articulate through intersternebral cartilages • Sternum= part where the ribs articulate

Manubrium

most cranial sternebra - thoracic inlet

Xiphoid process

most caudal sternebra (xiphisternum) – linea alba | • Longer than the others and is slightly flattened

Why is there No bony connection between the forelimb & the trunk – muscles

shock absorption

Bones of the forelimb

``` Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Carpus Metacarpus Digits ```

Clavicle (collar bone)

* Dog: absent – if present, remnant of bone lying in the muscle cranial to the shoulder joint * Cat: present - doesn’t articulate with other bones. Length ≈ 1cm. Curved appearance

Scapula (shoulder blade)

• • Large flat, triangular shaped Scapula spine divides the lateral surface into two fossae: Supraspinous fossa Infraspinous fossa Acromion = distal tip of scapula spine Glenoid cavity = socket distal end scapula Suprahamate process in rabbits and cats; scapular cartilage in horses

Acromion

distal tip of scapula spine

Glenoid cavity

socket distal end scapular

Humerus

• Long bone • Proximally with scapula = shoulder joint • Head of the humerus = proximal rounded projection • Neck of the humerus = shaft of bone distal to head • Greater tubercle = prominence on the cranial and lateral aspect • Lesser tubercle = prominence on the cranial and medial

Olecrannon fossa:

depression proximal to the condyle of the humerus fitting anconeal process (ulna)

Radius and ulna

Two bones lie side by side and form part of the lower forelimb

Olecranon

= point of the elbow

Anconeal process

= projection stabilising joint with radius and humerus

Trochlear notch

cavity that holds humerus condyle

Carpus

* Seven short carpal bones * Two rows: * Proximal (3 bones) • Distal (4 bones) * On the lateral edge of the carpus is the accessory carpal bone, which projects caudally & is used for muscle attachment.

Metacarpus

• Five small long bones. Names from 1 to 5 (I, II, III, IV and V) (from medial to lateral) • Metacarpal bone I is smaller and non weight bearing (→dew claw)

Digits

* Each digit has 3 phalanges except digit 1 (dew claw) which only has 2 * 1st & 2nd phalanges are simple ‘long’ bones * The 3rd has the ungual process attached (part of the claw)

Plantigrades

walking on the whole sole of the foot, as humans and bears. Rabbit Rat

Digitigrades

walking on its toes and not touching the ground with its heels, as a dog, cat, or rodent.

Unguligrade

walking on hooves horses are unguligrade animals.