b&b exam 2 Flashcards
(92 cards)
1
Q
apoptosis
A
the process of cell death due to deficiency of nerve growth factor
2
Q
transneuronal degeneration in Alzheimer’s disease consists of
A
a process of degeneration of the postsynaptic connections of a neuron
3
Q
studies comparing identical and fraternal twins raised together or apart by adoptive parents are particularly useful in sorting out the relative contributions of
A
heredity and environment (nature and nurture)
4
Q
in spina bifida, the caudal portion of the neural tube fails to close normally, leading to
A
paralysis of the lower limbs
5
Q
scientists theorize that homosexuality is caused
A
by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences
6
Q
Hebb synapses
A
are synapses strengthened by simultaneous activity
7
Q
Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative condition associated with
A
loss of cognitive and emotional function
8
Q
Nerve growth factor (NFG)
A
prevents apoptosis
9
Q
the neuromuscular junction is
A
the chemical synapse between the axon termination of a motor neuron and a muscle fibre
10
Q
damage to the right motor cortex can lead to deficits in control
A
of the left corner of the mouth
11
Q
a cervical spinal cord injury produces
A
quadriplegia
12
Q
degeneration of the basal ganglia can cause
A
Parkinson’s disease
13
Q
according to the motor chauvinist view
A
movement provides the only means we have to interact with both the world and other people
14
Q
a monosynaptic reflex requires the interaction of
A
two neurons at a single synapse
15
Q
the lateral pathway
A
originates primarily in the cerebral cortex and controls voluntary fine movements
16
Q
Parkinson’s disease is characterized by
A
difficulty initiating voluntary movements
17
Q
damage to the lumbar region of spinal cord causes
A
paraplegia
18
Q
to produce a certain trait we need (what genes)
A
two copies of the recessive gene of one copy of dominant gene
19
Q
how many chromosomes do humans have
A
46, two pairs of 23
20
Q
after two weeks from conception, a zygote becomes
A
an embryo
21
Q
a cell formed by the merger of an egg and sperm in the first two weeks is called
A
a zygote
22
Q
after eight weeks an embryo becomes
A
a fetus
23
Q
what are the three bands of cells of the embryo
A
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
24
Q
ectoderm develops into
A
the nervous system (and skin and hair), then the neural plate
25
the interior neural tube will become
the ventricles and central canal (brain and spinal cord)
26
in spina bifida, what portion of the neural tube fails to close
the caudal portion
27
spina bifida can cause
the paralysis of lower limbs
28
stages of the development of nervous system
neuron birth, migration of cells, differentiation into different types, connection formation, neural death, rearrangement of connections
29
use it or lose it refers to
death of synapses that are not used
30
neural plasticity states that
synapses change throughout lifetime
31
when the synapse is mature
the receptors are tightly clustered at synaptic sites
32
synaptic pruning
a period after synaptic overproduction when their number is reduced
33
the evidence that genetics play a significant role in sexual orientation is that
identical twins are more likely to have same sexual orientation than non-identical twins
34
when are the key periods of brain development
first two years of age,and ages 11 to 25
35
what happens during the second wave of brain development
problem-solving, controlling impulses, reasoning
36
Hubel and Wiesel proposed the existence of critical periods during which
the visual cortex can be modified by experience (cats)
37
who proposed the theory of imprinting
Lorenz
38
the deprivation in interaction in children raised in orphanages can be reversed
prior to 6 months of age
39
Down Syndrome/Trisomy 21is caused by
having three rather than two copies of chromosome 21
40
during which stage of cell division does abnormal division causing Down Syndrome happen
meiosis
41
damage to the neuron vs damage to the axon
damage to the neuron causes neural death
42
what happens during the anterograde degeneration
damaged segment of the axon separated from body cell after damage dies
43
damage to the CNS vs PNS
damaged axons in PNS can regrow (due to the response of the Schwann cells), and damage to the CNS is permanent
44
what is transneuronal degeneration
degeneration of the postsynaptic connections of a neuron
45
memory impairment in Alzheimer's disease is caused by
deterioration in the hippocampus
46
language and problem-solving deficits in Alzheimer's result from
damage to the cortex
47
emotional changes in Alzheimer's result from
damage to the amygdala (or other limbic structures connected to the hypothalamus)
48
chemical vs electrical synapse
chemical uses neurotransmitters and electrical uses ions, chemical is slower and more specific and electrical is faster and can send one message to many neurons
49
excitatory vs inhibitory neurons
excitatory depolarizes, inhibitory hyperpolarizes
50
what is the name of liquid within spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid
51
chuvinist view states that
we need our brains only for movement, which provides us the only means to interact with the world
52
monosynaptic reflex requires the interaction of how many neurons
two neurons at a single synapse
53
monosynaptic reflex example
patellar tendon reflex (knee, quadriceps muscle),
54
polysynaptic reflexes involve how many synapses
more than one
55
polysynaptic reflex example
flexion reflex (taking the hand away when we touch sth hot)
56
when sensory neurons transmit info about a painful stimuli to interneurons in the spinal cord, they excite what neurons
the alpha motor neurons in the flexor muscles of the affected limb, alpha motor neurons in the opposing muscle (extensor) are inhibited
57
alpha motor neurons receive info through
the lateral pathway and the ventromedial pathway
58
what is the lateral pathway
located in the lateral part of the spinal column, and controls voluntary fine movements of hands, feet, and limbs
59
what is the ventromedial pathway
located along the ventromedial part of the spinal column and carries out commands for automatic movement in the neck and torso (posture, orienting the head)
60
what is the main source of voluntary motor control
primary motor cortex located in the precentral gyrus
61
what are the stages of movement
frontal and parietal lobes think about the movement and its risks and SMA and pre-SMA help with that, pre-SMA and SMA activation is followed by primary motor cortex activation, info flows down the lateral pathways to the spinal cord, initiating muscle contractions
62
the cerebellum is responsible for informing the motor cortex of
complex factors like direction, force, and timing and checks if the intended movements were what actually happened, it requires learning
63
cholinergic agonists at the neuromuscular junction
boost the activity of ACh
64
cholinergic antagonists at the neuromuscular junction
paralyze muscles leading to death
65
damage to the spinal cord causes paralysis of the muscles
below the level of damage
66
what is quadriplegia
the paralysis of both arms and legs after damage to the cervical or neck region of the spinal cord
67
what is paraplegia
paralysis of only the legs after damage to the lumbar region of the lower back
68
basal ganglia participate in what part of voluntary movement
choice and initiation
69
Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease (and OCD and ADHD) are connected to abnormalities in what brain region
basal ganglia
70
Parkinson’s disease is characterized by
progressive difficulty in movements, tremors in resting hand and frozen facial expressions
71
what causes Parkinson's
when the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra in the brainstem degenerate
72
what is the standard treatment for Parkinson's
levodopa (L-dopa) which boosts the activity of dopminergic neurons and acts to improve movement and coordination, or electrical stimulation with wires surgically implanted in the thalamus and connected to pulse generators near the collarbone generating steady electrical signal interfering with the tremor
73
according to the ideomotor theory of action
both observing and imagining an action excites the motor programs used to execute that same action
74
the discovery of mirror neurons (1st experiment, 1992) occurred when it was first observed that
the same neurons are activated both when a monkey grasps or sees grasping an object
75
according to the theory of embodied simulation
immersion in the other's psychological states occurs through the mirror system
76
reciprocal imitation is key in
developing imitative behavior
77
theory of mind (TOM)
is the ability to attribute mental states to others
78
adults with Autistic syndrome disorder (ASD) can
mimic the facial expression of static basic emotions
79
sensorimotor associative learning is a
standard mechanism of Hebbian learning: sensory and motor neurons that fire together, wire together
80
direct matching between perception and action is
the fact that movement observation exerts an automatic influence on movement execution which was proved by Brass, Bekkering, Wohlschläger, and Prinz in their experiment where participants had to lift a certain figner in response to a number stimulus
81
which area was studied in the mirror neurons in monkeys in single-neuron recording
ventral premotor cortex (area F5) and inferior parietal lobule
82
what is imitation
an intentional process of learning available to even undeveloped individuals, including pre-verbal infants being a simple mechanism through which further cognitive, manual and sensory tools can be developed
83
Vittorio Gallese proposed that
we have a genetically predetermined tendency to develop mirror neurons that is nurtured by motor experience before and after birth
84
Meltzoff was convinced that imitation is
innate
85
what is temporal contingency
acting when someone else is acting
86
what is structural congruence
acting exactly like someone else is acting
87
according to Shimada and Hiraki the mirror neuron system
is already present at birth and flexibly modulated by motor experience and visuomotor learning
88
according to Cecilia Heyes mirror neurons get their matching properties through
sensorimotor associative learning (ASL): starting out as motor neurons, active only during the performance of an action, and then through the correlated experience of seeing and doing the same action they become strongly connected to visual neurons tuned to similar actions
89
Catmur suggests that imitation is
a simple associative mechanism that is present throughout life span
90
autism and mirror-neuron dysfunction
are not associated
91
what does Autistic syndrome disorder cause
deficits in social and emotional abilities, communication and language skills, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors, it creates an inability to establish meaningful social communication and bonds, to establish visual eye contact with others, to share attention with others, and to understand others’ emotions and sensations
92
theory of mind helps us with
joint attention, understanding the meaning of gaze direction
