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biology > B3-infection and response > Flashcards

B3-infection and response Flashcards

1
Q

pathogens

A

Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious disease.

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2
Q

Give 4 examples of pathogens.

A

Pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, protists or fungi.

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3
Q

what do pathogens do and how are they spread

A

They may infect plants or animals and can be spread by direct contact, by water or by air.

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4
Q

significance of bacteria and viruses

A

Bacteria and viruses may reproduce rapidly inside the body.

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5
Q

how do bacteria make us ill

A

Bacteria may produce poisons (toxins) that damage tissues and make us feel ill.

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6
Q

how do viruses make us ill

A

Viruses live and reproduce inside cells, causing cell damage.

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7
Q

what do bacteria damage

A

tissue

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8
Q

what do viruses damage

A

cells

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9
Q

what type of disease is measles

+symptoms

A

Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red skin rash.

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10
Q

measles symptoms

A

Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red skin rash.

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11
Q

risk of contracting measles

A

Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise. For this reason most young children are vaccinated against measles.

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12
Q

why are most young people vaccinated against measles

A

Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise. For this reason most young children are vaccinated against measles.

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13
Q

how is measles spread

A

The measles virus is spread by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs.

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14
Q

what does hiv cause symptom wise

A

HIV initially causes a flu-like illness. Unless successfully controlled with antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body’s immune cells.

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15
Q

what happens in late stage hiv

A

Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body’s immune system becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers.

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16
Q

what causes aids

A

Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body’s immune system becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers.

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17
Q

how is hiv spread

A

HIV is spread by sexual contact or exchange of body fluids such as blood which occurs when drug users share needles.

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18
Q

what is tmv

A

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a widespread plant pathogen affecting many species of plants including tomatoes.

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19
Q

tmv symptoms

A

It gives a distinctive ‘mosaic’ pattern of discolouration on the leaves which affects the growth of the plant due to lack of photosynthesis.

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20
Q

how is salmonella spread

A

Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food, or on food prepared in unhygienic conditions.

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21
Q

what does tmv cause in plants

A

stunted growth

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22
Q

how is salmonella prevented in uk

A

In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread.

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23
Q

symptoms of salmonella

A

Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea are caused by the bacteria and the toxins they secrete.

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24
Q

what is gonorrhea

A

Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms of a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and pain on urinating.

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25
Q

symptoms of gonorrhea

A

Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms of a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and pain on urinating.

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26
Q

what causes gonorrhea

A

It is caused by a bacterium and was easily treated with the antibiotic penicillin until many resistant strains appeared. Gonorrhoea is spread by sexual contact.

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27
Q

what type of pathogen is gonorrhea

A

bacteria

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28
Q

how do we control spread of gonorrhea and or treat it

A

The spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics or the use of a barrier method of contraception such as a condom.

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29
Q

what is rose black spot

A

Rose black spot is a fungal disease where purple or black spots develop on leaves, which often turn yellow and drop early.

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30
Q

what type of pathogen is rose black spot

A

fungal

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31
Q

symptoms of rose black spot

A

Rose black spot is a fungal disease where purple or black spots develop on leaves, which often turn yellow and drop early.

32
Q

what is the effect of rose black spot in plants

A

It affects the growth of the plant as photosynthesis is reduced.

33
Q

how is rose black spot spread

A

It is spread in the environment by water or wind.

34
Q

how is rose black spot treated

A

Rose black spot can be treated by using fungicides and/or removing and destroying the affected leaves.

35
Q

what pathogen causes malaria and what specific type

A

The pathogens that cause malaria are protists. The malarial protist has a life cycle that includes the mosquito.

36
Q

malaria symptoms

A

Malaria causes recurrent episodes of fever and can be fatal.

37
Q

how do we control the spread of malaria

A

The spread of malaria is controlled by preventing the vectors, mosquitos, from breeding and by using mosquito nets to avoid being bitten.

38
Q

what is vaccination

A

Vaccination involves introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of a pathogen into the body to stimulate the white blood cells to produce antibodies.

39
Q

how do white blood cells prevent reinfection of the same pathogen

A

If the same pathogen re-enters the body the white blood cells respond quickly to produce the correct antibodies, preventing infection.

40
Q

what are antibiotics and how do they work

A

Antibiotics, such as penicillin, are medicines that help to cure bacterial disease by killing infective bacteria inside the body.

41
Q

why are there a variety of antibiotics

A

It is important that specific bacteria should be treated by specific antibiotics.

42
Q

one advantage and disadvantage of antibiotics

A

The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial diseases. However, the emergence of strains resistant to antibiotics is of great concern.

43
Q

when arent antibiotics effective

A

Antibiotics cannot kill viral pathogens.

44
Q

what are painkillersused to treat

+not

A

Painkillers and other medicines are used to treat the symptoms of disease but do not kill pathogens.

45
Q

why is it difficult to develop drugs against viruses

A

It is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also damaging the body’s tissues.

46
Q

how were drugs traditionally extracted

A

Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and microorganisms.

47
Q

origin of digitalis

A

The heart drug digitalis originates from foxgloves.

48
Q

what is digitalis

A

a heart drug that originates from foxgloves

49
Q

where does aspirin originate from

A

The painkiller aspirin originates from willow.

50
Q

what is aspirin

A

a painkiller

51
Q

where does penicillin originate from

A

Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from the Penicillium mould.

52
Q

who discovered penicillin

A

alexander fleming

53
Q

what is penicillin

A

an antibiotic

54
Q

how are drugs extracted in modern times

A

Most new drugs are synthesised by chemists in the pharmaceutical industry. However, the starting point may still be a chemical extracted from a plant.

55
Q

what must happen to all new drugs before being used commercially

A

New medical drugs have to be tested and trialled before being used to check that they are safe and effective.

56
Q

what 3 things are drugs tested for

A

New drugs are extensively tested for toxicity, efficacy and dose.

57
Q

what happens during preclinical testing

A

Preclinical testing is done in a laboratory using cells, tissues and live animals.

58
Q

what happens in clinical trials

A
  • Clinical trials use healthy volunteers and patients. Very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical trial.
  • If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried out to find the optimum dose for the drug.
  • In double blind trials, some patients are given a placebo. but neither participants nor researchers are aware who is in the control group
59
Q

double blind trial

A

Both the patient and doctor do not know which drug is being administered. To avoid bias.

60
Q

placebo

A

Placebo is a fake drug.

61
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies produced from and why does it work

A
  • Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells.
  • The antibodies are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen and so are able to target a specific chemical or specific cells in the body.
62
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies produced

A
  • mouse injected with antigen
  • mouse produces antibodies for antigen
  • extract lymphocytes from mouse
  • combine lymphocytes with tumour cells as they cannot divide by mitosis
  • this produces a hybridoma cell
  • the hybridoma cell divides to create a clone of identical hybridoma cells
63
Q

how are hybridoma cells made

A

The lymphocytes are combined with a particular kind of tumour cell to make a cell called a hybridoma cell.

64
Q

what do hybridoma cells do

A

The hybridoma cell can both divide and make the antibody.

65
Q

what are hybridoma cells used for

A

Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many identical cells that all produce the same antibody. A large amount of the antibody can be collected and purified.

66
Q

uses of monoclonal antibodies (3-4)

A
  • for diagnosis such as in pregnancy tests.
  • In laboratories to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood
  • to detect pathogens
  • In research to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding to them with a fluorescent dye.
67
Q

how can monoclonal antibodies treat cancer

A

for cancer the monoclonal antibody can be bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug or a chemical which stops cells growing and dividing. It delivers the substance to the cancer cells without harming other cells in the body.

68
Q

downside to monoclonal antibodies

A

Monoclonal antibodies create more side effects than expected. They are not yet as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed.

69
Q

signs of plant disease (7)

(Sally said danny got more dead plants)

A

Plant diseases can be detected by:
* stunted growth
* spots on leaves
* areas of decay (rot)
* growths
* malformed stems or leaves
* discolouration
* the presence of pests.

70
Q

how can we identify plant diseases (3)

A

Identification can be made by:
* reference to a gardening manual or website
* taking infected plants to a laboratory to identify the pathogen
* using testing kits that contain monoclonal antibodies.

71
Q

what can plant ion deficiency lead to

A

Plants can be damaged by a range of ion deficiency conditions:
* stunted growth caused by nitrate deficiency
* chlorosis caused by magnesium deficiency (leaves turn pale due to lack of chlorophyll)

72
Q

what are nitrate ions needed for in plants

A

Nitrate ions needed for protein synthesis and therefore growth

73
Q

what are magnesium ions needed for in plants

A

magnesium ions needed to make chlorophyll.

74
Q

physical plant defences +info from pics

A

Physical defence responses to resist invasion of microorganisms.
* Cellulose cell walls.
* Tough waxy cuticle on leaves.
* Layers of dead cells around stems (bark on trees) which fall off. and are replaced with new ones

75
Q

chemical plant defences +info from pics

A

Chemical plant defence responses.
* Antibacterial chemicals.
* Poisons to deter herbivores.

76
Q

mechanical plant defences +info from pics

A

Chemical plant defence responses. * Antibacterial chemicals. * Poisons to deter herbivores.

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