B3.6 Flashcards
(431 cards)
1
Q
What are the hominoids?
A
Chimps, gorillas, orang-utans and humans and thier ancestors
2
Q
What are the hominids?
A
Chimps, gorillas, humans and their ancestors
3
Q
What are hominins?
A
Humans and their ancestors
4
Q
What are primates?
A
New world monkeys, old world monkeys, apes and humans
5
Q
What are the closets relatives to primates?
A
Insectivores, eg mole, hedgehogs etc.
6
Q
How much genetic code is shared between humans and chimpazines?
A
99%
7
Q
What are many adaptations for primates focused on?
A
Tree dwelling
8
Q
What are some adaptations primates have for tree dwelling?
A
Well developed collar bone (clavicle), 5 digit hands and feet, walking on the soles of feet (plantigrade foot posture), long nimble limbs
9
Q
What are the 2 types of locomotion primates perform, define them
A
Arboreal locomotion - moving through the treesGround locomotion - moving on the ground
10
Q
What are the 3 types of arboreal locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
A
Quadrupedalism - arms and legs are of equal length and importance, eg lemursModified quadrupedalism - Leaping an climbing, trunk is vertical before and after leaps+plus in resting eg tarsiersBrachiation - use of the arms to swing through trees and arms become longer, eg gibbons
11
Q
What are the 3 types of ground locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
A
Terrestrial Quadrupedalism - using all four limbs all the time and all 4 limbs of similar length, eg baboonsKnuckle walking quadrupedalism- walking on all four limbs but on the front two limbs, on their knuckles and on the back two on the surface of their feet and front 2 limbs longer than back 2, eg chimpanzeeBipedalism - walking on two legs and the hands are not used for motion at all, legs longer than arms eg humans
12
Q
What is a skeletal change to the CHEST to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
A
Structure: HUMANS - rib cage flattened so centre of gravity is as little far forward as possible minimising tendency to fall forward APES - chest is flattened to the sides helping to lower centre of gravity
13
Q
What are the skeletal change to the SPINE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
A
Shape: HUMANS - S shaped curve to provide support and balance for upright position of torso and places weight directly above joint between spine and pelvis APES - C shaped spine promotes quadrupedal locomotion Neural spines: HUMANS - short neural spines (points bits on spine FYI) are short as little muscle required to hold head up APES - long neural spines as need for large surface for muscle attachment to support large head in horizontal position
14
Q
What are the skeletal and muscular changes to the PELVIS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
A
Shape: HUMANS - bowl shaped (broader+shorter) support upright torso by increased stability, weight transmitted directly to legs APES - longer+narrower for greater attachment of gluteus medius muscles=helps quadrupedalism movement and better support to torso organsMovement: HUMANS - gluteus maximus muscle located at rear of hips to help pull femur back when walking APES - smaller gluteus maximus that lies on outside of hip to raise legs sideways
15
Q
What is the skeletal change to the LEGS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
A
Structure: HUMANS - legs are longer than arms as legs solely used for movement unlike arms, femur is longer=larger stride, thinner bone=lighter for more efficient movement (can be thinner as better weight distribution) APES - arms longer than legs as arms used more for weight distribution
16
Q
What are the skeletal change to the KNEE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
A
Valgus angle: HUMANS - femur slants downwards and inwards+angled at knee joint, this puts the weight of the body directly underneath the spinal cord (increased valgus angle) = better balancing when walking APES - femur goes vertically from pelvis (no valgus angle)Lateral condyles: HUMANS - increased buttressing of the bone at the base of the femur preventing sideways movement of leg when walking APES - no increased buttressing
17
Q
What are the skeletal change to the FEET to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
A
Carrying angle: HUMANS - feet place directly under spine to prevent swaying when walking APES - feet on outside of pelvis Shape: HUMANS - there is a convex arch of foot that acts like a spring allowing for better transfer of weight down foot to big toe APES - no arch (flat footed)Big toe: HUMANS - aligned with other toes to provide final thrust against ground for forward propulsion APES - divergent (slightly opposed) to allow for grasping action
18
Q
What are the skeletal change to the SKULL to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
A
Shape: HUMANS - rounded for increased brain capacity APES - flatter as doesn’t need larger brain capacityCranium capacity: HUMAN - enlarged skull (1350cc)(particularly frontal lobe) to accommodate for larger prefrontal cortex=better abstract+thinking capacity APE - smaller skull (500cc) as no need large prefrontal cortexStructure: HUMANS - weight concentrated in cranium+reduced attachment sites for chewing muscles (cooking makes it easier to chew) and facial muscles (no need for aggressive faces), weight concentrated in jaw for attachment of muscles (tough diet=more strenght)Foramen magnum: HUMANS - in centre of underside of skull so its is placed directly on top of spine=better balance APES - back of skull for horizontal position of headOccipital condyles (for attachment of first vertebrate): HUMANS - far forward helps bipedalism APES - far back helps quadrupedalism
19
Q
What are the skeletal change to the JAW/ARRANGEMENT to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
A
Size: HUMANS - small in size as teeth are smaller APE - large as teeth are largeTeeth arrangement: HUMANS - teeth are arranged in ‘v’ arch shape+no diastema APES - are arranged in ‘u’ with parallel sides+diastema
20
Q
What are the skeletal change to the TEETH to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
A
Shape: HUMANS - smaller and more uniformed size suited for omnivorous diet+softer cooking APES - larger specialised teeth for grinding and chewing, large canines for defenceStructure: HUMANS - smaller molars+premolars and thinner enamel as less chewing/grinding=less wear and don’t need to expend energy on making larger teeth/moving larger jaw=energy conserved APES - large molar+premolars and thick enamel as lots of chewing/grinding=more wear
21
Q
What are the differences in BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
A
Food: HUMANS - hunted/gathered then transported back to home/base and prepared APES - eaten where foundManipulation of objects: HUMANS - can perform fine careful movements APES - can only grab objects with rough/power grip
22
Q
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
A
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed as alpha male has complete dominance over mates through ordered and respected social structure APES - advertised as males don’t have complete dominance and social structure not rigid Sweat: HUMANS - produce a lot of sweat for efficient cooling APES - produce little sweat as little cooling requiredHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless for better cooling APES - very hair to keep warm in cool shade of forests
23
Q
How has the structure of the HAND different in humans and apes? how does this help for their life style?
A
HUMAN - finger bones straight and thumb is long+fully opposable=very good grip on objects enabling complex tool making APES - finger bones curved and thumb short and not fully opposable=use of crude tools only and suits brachiation
24
Q
How are humans generally adapted differently to apes?
A
Vertical centre of gravity - alignment of skull, trunk, legs and feetimproved bipedalism - valgus angle, arched feet, pelvic shape + vertical centre of gravityBrain structure - larger volume for larger prefrontal cortex etc. foramen magnum location, muscle attachment etc.Jaws/teeth - smaller teeth, more uniform size/shape and less muscle as food easier to chew [cooking] and less specialised
25
What systems do hominins have that enable better cooling? how does it help them with their life style?
-upright stance reduces sun exposure by 70%, lots of sweat glands to excrete lots of sweat and hairless to enable water to evaporate better and wind to cool down-due to active hunting style of hominis during the day, better cooling reduces the chance of heat stroke and can enable more activity during the heat of the day-being hairless also reduces the infestation of parasites and fleas on the skin reducing chances of infection/disease especially as humans began to make home bases which would increase the chance of diseases spreading through population
26
What are the benefits of bipedalism?
-Improves visibility by elevating the head higher-Reduces heat stroke by reducing the sun exposure to the body-Frees hands to enable for tool making, carrying objects etc.-more efficient transport for hunting purposes (run down prey until exhaustion) and better ability to travel (nomadic life style enables following of plenty or home territories where you travel from there)
27
What are disadvantages of bipedalism? what causes them?
-prone to back aches because of S-shaped spine and bowl shaped pelvis-slipped disc as weight of body carried by 2 limbs instead of 4-feet can become injured easily (strain, arches of feet collapse, distorted bones etc.) as weight of body only carried on 2 feet instead of 4-because of vertical position blood must be pumped down and then back up our legs via the varicose vein and require valves to work properly, when these fail they can lead to pain and complications-as the gut is no longer held in position from the spine by a broad ligament as in 4 legged animals, instead by abdominal muscles, intestines may bulge out leading to a hernia-with our new broad and short shaped pelvis the birth canal has been made smaller making child birth more difficult increasing chances of complication
28
What are the benefits of a bigger brain?
-enables for more brain cells-greater complexity of linkages between cells
29
How are human brains better than ape brains?
-brains bigger in volume (chimps=400cc, h.sapien=1350cc) enabling more brain cells (particularly in the cerebrum and frontal cortex)-more folding (40% more) increasing surface area of brain-Broca's area (speech production and language processing) and Wernicke's area (understanding and comprehension) developed in brain to enable speech
30
How much of a percent does the brain weigh and use in energy? what does this mean for sustaining a large brain? what cultural changes have allowed for the brain to be given an adequate supply of food?
-weighs 2% but consumes 20% of all energy-requires a lot of energy which means it has to be extremely beneficial to us if we are to sustain its high energy demands-we began to eat meat which is very energy dense and full of protein essential for our brain, we also cooked our food helping increase the absorption rate of our food increasing the amount of energy extracted and our abilities to hunt through the development of social interaction and better tools supplied a bigger quantity of food (particularly meat)
31
What are the differences between robust and gracile hominis
gracile=light and small in structurerobust=heavier and stronger structure
32
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33
What is the selection pressure for bipedalism and how did this change the environment? how did this encourage bipedalism? describe
-climate change caused the environment to become drier-this drying of the environment caused the forests to recede and form savannah and being bipedal increased the efficiency of foraging-distance between tress increased as bush receded and being bipedal made it more efficient to travel between trees for shade/food-receding trees also increased sun exposure and being bipedal reduces sun exposure and reduced chance of heat stroke-receding trees reduced amount of food causing early hominis to venture to sea shore and bipedalism made it easier to wade and move over obstacles by sea shore
34
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed for more monogamy APES - advertised as less bigamous Sweat: HUMANS - lots of sweat glands and can profusely sweat to keep cool in open savannah APES - few sweat glands and little sweat as in the cool bushHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless except on head for better heat management APES - hairy to keep cool under forest
35
What are 4 possible theories as to why humans became bipedal?
-climate change created large areas of savannah which forced early hominins to forage in open areas and bipedal movement was more efficient (better viewing, better movement etc.)-early hominins would have been walking partially bipedally along branches etc. by the time savannah created, larger greater distances between trees meant that bipedal movement was more efficient (dont need to go down onto four limbs then back up to two, just stay on two)-less trees=less shade and by being bipedal ~70% less body exposed to hot sun + breeze more efficiently cools down body enabling better heat management-early hominins during times of hunger venture to sea and bipedal motion enabled better movement via wading+walking over obstacles
36
What are the advantages of bipedalism?
-more efficient movement over savannah, sea shore, obstacles and between trees = conservation of energy+greater range over terrain-enables head to be elevated much higher to see further/over grass to see prey, predator etc.-reduces heat exposure and enables better cooling-frees the hand so that hands can be used for things such as carrying, crafting, defending etc.-enables for the reduction of the chest muscles enabling the development of better vocal muscles for communication
37
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and multi-regional hypothesis?
-Both support that there was interbreeding between different populations-However multi-regional suggests we evolved as H.sapien out of africa while hybridisation supports we evolved in africa
38
What are the 3 dispersal theories?
Multi-regional hypothesis, Out of Africa hypothesis, Hybridisation model
39
Describe what multi-regional hypothesis says is the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-states that H.erectus left africa ~2mya and went to europe and asia-H.erectus slowly evolved into H.sapien everywhere-gene flow maintained between populations ensuring general 'modern human blueprint' was adapted by whole species-gene flow was limited leading to slight anatomical differences which were retained per region (ie asian, european, malaysian etc.)-based on fossil evidence of H.erectus with asian, european etc. like features
40
Describe what the out of africa hypothesis suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-suggests that H.erectus left africa ~2mya-suggest that H.sapien was fully evolved in africa ~170,000 ya -H.sapien left africa ~40,000 ya replacing H.erectus and H.heidelbergensis populations-no gene flow between european, asian, african etc. populations-based on mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) which shows that we all had a common ancestor traced back to africa ~170,000 ya-based on Y chromosome evidence which shows mutations from ~44,000 ya in modern african gene that is possessed by all asian populations therefore shows they must have been in africa then left-nuclear DNA evidence shows african population have greatest genetic diversity showing how out of africa populations created from founder effect which causes unrepresentative population to leave
41
Describe what the hybridisation model suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-Humans evolved in africa ~170,000 ya, left africa ~40,000 ya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor with denisovans ~1mya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor ~500,000 ya-Neanderthal and denisovans shared common ancestor ~200,000 ya-H.sapien interbred with other human populations in europe and asia (eg neanderthals and denisovans)-Proof as all NON-AFRICAN populations have 1-4% neanderthal DNA, shows that there was interbreeding in Middle East ~80,000 ya then populations split into europe+asia with new DNA-modern day Melanesians contain 4-6% denisovans DNA meaning interbreeding occured in siberia on route to melanesia
42
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and out of africa hypothesis?
-both suggest H.sapien evolved in africa ~170,000 ya and left ~40,000 ya-however hybridisation suggest interbreeding with established population while out of africa suggests no interbreeding/gene flow
43
The taste gene PTC is found in all humans and mutated around 100,000 years ago, however in african populations there are 7 different alleles but in non-african populations only 2 are found, what theory/s of dispersion supports this and why?
-supports the hybridisation and out-of-africa model-reduced genetic variation shown in non-african populations as there are less alleles, shows founder group left africa with unrepresentative gene pool or else all 7 alleles would be found in other populations disproves multiregional theory
44
What evidence is there to suggest that humans and neanderthals interbred?
-DNA evidence suggests 1-4% of nuclear DNA from non-african populations is neanderthal suggesting interbreeding-archaeological evidence has found bones of H.sapien with distinct neanderthal features
45
When and where did this neanderthal DNA enter our H.sapien lineage?
50,000 ya when H.sapien left africa through the middle east
46
What, where and when did Denisovan live?
-it is a species of hominis that lived in south east asia and lived from 200,000-40,000 ya
47
From the denisovan DNA found there appears to be very little genetic diversity (humans have 33% more), what does this tell us?
the denisovan population never got very big and therefore there was very little genetic diversity
48
What are some distinguishing features between denisovan, neanderthal and H.sapien?
-Denisovan and neanderthal were robust in their build (thicker bones, shorter and stockier, flaring hips, larger joint surfaces H.sapien gracile-Neanderthal had large flaring noses, humans are smaller-Neanderthal had larger brains (1450cc) than H.sapien (1350cc)
49
When were there food shortages and what caused them?
1.7 mya, 500,000 ya and 60,000 yacaused by the cooling and drying of the environment
50
What did the food shortages do to the hominin populations?
It drove them out to seek food elsewhere
51
What routes did hominins use leaving africa?
they followed the coastline east through to polynesia and into central asia, also went north into europe
52
What are the 5 types of tool cultures?
Oldowan tool culture, acheulian tool culture, mousterian tool culture, upper palaeolithic tool culture and neolithic tool culture
53
Describe the oldowan tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-roughly flaked to one side to create cutting edge, made of basalt, quartz or chert-made bu a single blow of one rock aganist another-multipurpose tools for cutting meat, skin and wood, scrapping hide, used as hammers and diggers-homo habilis created them
54
What is something significant about H.habilis using crystalline stones (eg basalt, quartz and chert) as tools?
It showed first evidence of when were able to identify differences between rocks, shows more abstract thinking due to better recognition of details such as texture, colour, weight etc.
55
Describe the acheulian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-tear drop shape with sharp edges around it and a point, still use the choppers of the oldowan culture but less common-chipping stone from both sides with another rock-hand axes, picks and cleavers-homo erectus
56
What are some innovations in the design of the acheulian tools?
-chipping from both sides created a symmetrical shape (not one sided like oldowan, shows crafting)-shaped tools into recognisable and repeatable shapes (not random like oldowan, shows crafting)-these tools were created with variation to better suit a purpose (specialisation is new concept=more complex technology)
57
Describe the mousterian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more crafted and further specialised than acheulian tools with many variations for many jobs, often made of flint, used tools to create tools, combined with other components (eg spears shaft+spearhead=spear)-shaped stone into preliminary shape (rounded smooth surface) then striking off areas to create edges/points-spears, crafting wood, tools to make tools-Neanderthal
58
What are some important aspects in the development of mousterian tools?
-became a standardised tool making procedure-tools allowed for future adjustment (eg reshaping blade, resharpening etc.)-less use of large multipurpose tools, instead specialised tools -combination of tools (eg shaft+head=spear) enable specialisation keystone for specialised tool creating labour=enabling of development of wealth-tools for preparation of hides for clothing, shoes, bedding, shelter, bags etc. show social organisation=stability (improvement on primitive hominins)
59
Describe the upper palaeolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more specialised tools, small fine tools developed, new materials used-varied greatly, tool making process not longer set in stone but per tool and material-needles, spears, hooks, arrow heads, spear throwers, jewellery, figurines-Homo sapien (~90,000-12,000 ya)
60
What does the creating of the new tools in palaeolithic culture indicate about their technological and social advancements?
-advances in clothing, shelter, utensils, ornaments, medicine, nutrition and rituals-social status now important and shown through outward physical manifestation (eg jewellery) = clear hierarchy/wealth + religion -symbolism lead to the development of pictures/counting tallies used to signify historical record, calendar time which all lead to WRITTEN LANGUAGE
61
How did the creating of tools then increased our efficiency at hunting change our eating habits?
-Better tools enable for better hunting abilities = better diets-also led to over hunting and extinction of species, this sped up process of development of agriculture
62
Describe the neolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-development of tools for agricultural uses, greater use of symbolism-varies greatly from tool to tool but new technique of pressure flaking was used to give polished look-scythes, scrapers, plows etc-H.sapien (6,000 ya - now)
63
What is the first species to control fire?
H.erectus
64
What evidence is there to suggest controlling of fire?
-Hearth formed (eg ring of stones around charcoal)-charcoal sites + charred bones found
65
What are some advantages of using fire?
-provided warmth = ability to live in colder climates (eg europe+asia during ice age)-provides light = enable groups to operate for longer during day to do activities, eg grooming/chatting/dancing etc. (social bonding), tool making-protection = keeps animals away as they don't like fire-health = cooking food kills bacteria and parasites-tool making = hardens spear to make them last longer
66
What are some disadvantage of using fire?
-injury = fire is hot and can burn-environmental damage = fires can get out of control and burn land-attract competition = fire + smoke is bright so is easily visible at day/night for other hominis-work required = to start fire/gather resources labour intensive
67
What is the most important use of fire in our development as humans? why?
-cooking-kills parasites/bacteria reducing chances of getting sick = reduced death rates-breaks down proteins and fats making it easier to digest = more nutritionally available = better brain development
68
What was the first hominin species to be bipedal and when did it live? what would have made it bipedal? what are some characteristics of it?
-Australopithecus afarensis, 3.9-2.4 mya-need to see over savannah grass to spot predators, to reduce sun exposure and freeing of the hands for function (carrying etc.)-brain size=400-500cc, height=1.1-1.5m (sexual dimorphism) ape like face (low forehead, bony brow, flat nose, no chin), human like teeth (small canines + better suited for omnivorous diet), human/ape shaped jaw, long arms relative to legs, arched foot and big toe, valgus angle increased and gracile structure
69
Describe the features of australopithecus robustus and when it lived
-2.2-1.5 mya-brains size=530cc, very thick jaw, large pre/molars, small canines+incisors (mainly herbivorous), sagittal crest for attachment of extra muscles, robust structure, bipedal
70
What was the first homo species and when did it live? describe it and what it was the first species to do
-homo habilis, 2.4-1.5mya-had chin, brain size=500-800cc, change in pelvis structure allowed for more upright stance, more omnivorous teeth structure (large incisor and molars), gracile structure-first species to make tools
71
A.robust and its line died out while H.habilis lead onto many other homo species to us today. What enabled H.habilis to excel in its environment compared to A.robust?
H.habilis was adaptable while A.robust was to specialised to its specific environment. This meant that as the enviro changed, H.habilis could change by creating tools for the purpose and adapting its died (omnivorous) while A.robust did not have the abstract thinking to create tools and had a limited diet (herbivore)
72
What are the 8 general trend in characteristics as the homo genus evolved?
-increased size+complexity of the brain (especially frontal lobe)-development of more advanced language-further development of s-shaped curve in spine-legs continue to become longer proportional to arms-teeth become smaller+less enamel-smaller jaw and more defined chin-more rounded cranium with bulging forehead-development of group living and culture/tool making
73
How did a more complex thought process directly benefit the lives of early hominis (eg H.habilis)
-allowed for basic tool making enabling better access to nutrients from animals (eg bone marrow)-better organisation of hunting enabling more successful hunts-better ability to find other foods not necessarily part of the norm
74
How were H.neanderthal and H.sapien adapted differently?
-H.sapien adapted to the hot climate of africa (tall, thin and dark skinned)-H.neanderthal adapted perfectly to cold ice age european environment (short, stocky, broad noses, short limbed, white)
75
How did the technology of H.sapien change over the same period as H.neanderthal?
-H.neanderthal had very little change in tool making and tools using the same scraper, hand axes, spears etc. over 250,000 years-H.sapien changed as needs were required using different materials, making different tools etc.
76
How were the social groups of H.sapien and H.neanderthal different?
-H.sapien lived in large social groups and made regular contact with other social groups-H.neanderthal lived in small groups of 7-25 and made little or no contact with other groups
77
How did the adaptations, change in tool cultures and social strustures of H.sapien and H.neanderthal lead to H.sapien to be the last homo genus?
-As environment changed, H.neanderthal being too specialised could not adapt to new environment as their tool culture didn't change, their diets were restricted to what they knew and they didn't share ideas with other groups-H.sapien were adaptable and created tools as they were needed meaning they could alter the environment as they needed+sharing of ideas-Because both species were competing for the same resources, H.sapien was better adapted to the change, H.neanderthal didn't change and continue to follow large game species in forests into the valleys leading to their demise as H.sapien spread and took over europe
78
When did homo sapien begin to start wearing clothes? how earlier had we lost our fur?
-170,000 ya-830,000 ya (lost fur 1mya)
79
What are 2 possible reasons as to why we lost our fur?
-To get rid of the parasites that infested our fur-emerging from the cool forests to hot savannah, fur caused overheating therefore shed it to spend more time in sun
80
What is a possible trigger of the manufacturing of clothing?
The coldest ice age ever ~180,000 ya
81
How long have humans been doing body paint and wearing animals skins (not crafted into clothing)?
Entire human history
82
When did ornamentation begin to show up?
75,000 ya
83
When and what did we create needles from? how did this help our clothe making abilities?
-35,000 ya from bone-enable the creating of more sophisticated tailoring of clothing and multi layering
84
How did neanderthal clothing differ to homo sapien clothing?
Homo sapien more sophisticated (tailored, multilayered, stitched etc), neanderthal layered on animal skins with no tailoring
85
What evidence is there that neanderthals could have worn clothing?
-stone awls/borers used to punch holes in leather/wood for cloth making-wear marks on incisor teeth similar to Inuit women who chewed mens leather boots before hunting
86
How did clothing abilities affect homo sapien and neanderthals future survival?
-unsophicated clothing couldn't keep neanderthal sufficently warm during cold snaps of 40-35,000 ya contributing to dwindling population-homo sapien's sophicated clothing kept them warmer during cold snaps + allowed them to migrate to colder places therefore take over more areas
87
What was (and are) the purposes of decoration such as pierced mammoth ivory beads sewn onto clothing? why?
-sign of wealth-it takes many hours to construct their jewellery indicating high level of wealth by availability of free time away from hunting
88
What were the early forms of communication?
Facial expressions, body language and gestures followed by primitive noises (eg grunts and screeches)
89
What are the 2 regions of the brain associated with language?
Broca's and Wernicke's area
90
What species is believed to be the first to have complex communication (speaking)? What indicates this?
-Homo erectus-increasing standardisation of tool making
91
What species is most associated with the development of art? what kind of art did they produce?
-Homo sapien-cave paintings of animals (eg horses, deer, oxen and mammoth), bone and ivory carving (15-10,000 ya FYI)
92
What could have been a cause and function of ancient artwork?
-developed as a humans got more free time-Method of communication traditions and values of tribe and for visual aesthetics + enables cultural info to be shared down generations
93
What species showed the first signs of spirituality? How did they show this? what does it show?
-Neanderthal-burying the dead and decoration grave with flowers, commonly aligned in east-west position, legs curled up, head resting on stone, bodies decorated with red ochre and black MgO-possible indicates a form of religion
94
What was the significance of burying individuals?
-removed diseases/bacteria found in dead=better health-burial with tools, food, flowers etc. indicates caring for the dead=caring for each other in living=establishment of greater social bonds which help overcome hazards enabling better survival-shows that there was a belief in religion and the afterlife
95
What is hunter gatherer and division of labour and how did it affect social groups? What did method of survival require to be successful?
-the splitting of labours in a social group for the search of food, ie women gathering roots, fruits, veges etc. while men hunted-enabled groups to gather a widely varied diet (healthier), encouraged development of tools for hunting, transporting, preparing of food etc, led to more complex social structures encouraging larger groups to form therefore encouraged development of brain (divvying of labour times enable for better child education, increase cultural knowledge to pass on), sharing of foods (kinship), improve hunting (larger animals can be killed)/gathering meant more food (meat, veges etc)/resources (fur, sinew, ivory etc)=better chances of survival-co-operation and communication skills
96
Define domestication
Bringing plants and animals under human control
97
When and what was the first animal to be domesticated?
Dog 12,000 ya
98
When and what was the first plant to be domesticated?
Wheat 10,000 ya
99
Why were animals domesticated first?
Better suited to nomadic life as don't have to stay in one place for food, can move animals around
100
What are the advantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-animals can be more valuable alive for their fur, milk, eggs etc as a steady income-can be killed/harvested at optimum time=most nutritious food possible-herd of animals enable more meat to be 'stored' as live animals don't rot-when animals domesticated can be used to help physical labour, eg cattle=lifting, dogs=hunting-animals+crops source of wealth and can be traded-enables for the settling down of population to form towns/cities=specialised occupation to help farming (carpentry, medicine, tech etc), enabled new tech to develop (eg potter, smelting, maths etc.)-further selective breeding enabled for yeasts for bread, bees for honey, special breeds of cattle etc.
101
What are the disadvantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-certain breeds of animals/plants totally dependent on humans-decreased gene pool=more susceptible to diseases-monoculture practice leads to over reliance of one crop putting people at risk of famine in disease-permanent settlements lead to increased pollution-soil fertility decreases as land continuously farmed and nutrients extracted-settlements=increased population density=increased chances of disease spreads
102
What kind of region did agriculture originate from (generally and specifically)? Why?
-warm climates and easy access to water-Fertile crescent as the soil was moist from surrounding rivers and there was lots of sun as in the middle east
103
Hunter gathers are nomadic, why?
-In search of food and water-moving as seasons change-meet friends/relatives/tradeing-hunters follow animals
104
Though humans were nomadic, there is evidence that we built shelters and lived in them for a large part of the year, why?
when the environment was good (good weather, lots of water, plenty game etc.) would settle down temporarily and use it
105
Define biological evolution
any genetic change in a population that can be inherited
106
define cultural evolution
a change in the learned behaviour from one generation to the next
107
What is the evidence that language developed? What does it show possible language?
-discovery of a thyroid bone-used to hold the vocal chords in place in modern humans so evidence of it suggests early speaking capabilities
108
How has the freeing of hands aided the mental development of hominis?
-freeing of the hands allowed us to use them for more than physical support, ie crafting of tools, decoration, throwing etc.-this aided mental development as it encouraged higher intelligence to maximise the use of hands
109
What are the hominids?
Chimps, gorillas, humans and their ancestors
110
What are hominins?
Humans and their ancestors
111
What are primates?
New world monkeys, old world monkeys, apes and humans
112
What are the closets relatives to primates?
Insectivores, eg mole, hedgehogs etc.
113
How much genetic code is shared between humans and chimpazines?
99%
114
What are many adaptations for primates focused on?
Tree dwelling
115
What are some adaptations primates have for tree dwelling?
Well developed collar bone (clavicle), 5 digit hands and feet, walking on the soles of feet (plantigrade foot posture), long nimble limbs
116
What are the 2 types of locomotion primates perform, define them
Arboreal locomotion - moving through the treesGround locomotion - moving on the ground
117
What are the 3 types of arboreal locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
Quadrupedalism - arms and legs are of equal length and importance, eg lemursModified quadrupedalism - Leaping an climbing, trunk is vertical before and after leaps+plus in resting eg tarsiersBrachiation - use of the arms to swing through trees and arms become longer, eg gibbons
118
What are the 3 types of ground locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
Terrestrial Quadrupedalism - using all four limbs all the time and all 4 limbs of similar length, eg baboonsKnuckle walking quadrupedalism- walking on all four limbs but on the front two limbs, on their knuckles and on the back two on the surface of their feet and front 2 limbs longer than back 2, eg chimpanzeeBipedalism - walking on two legs and the hands are not used for motion at all, legs longer than arms eg humans
119
What is a skeletal change to the CHEST to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Structure: HUMANS - rib cage flattened so centre of gravity is as little far forward as possible minimising tendency to fall forward APES - chest is flattened to the sides helping to lower centre of gravity
120
What are the skeletal change to the SPINE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Shape: HUMANS - S shaped curve to provide support and balance for upright position of torso and places weight directly above joint between spine and pelvis APES - C shaped spine promotes quadrupedal locomotion Neural spines: HUMANS - short neural spines (points bits on spine FYI) are short as little muscle required to hold head up APES - long neural spines as need for large surface for muscle attachment to support large head in horizontal position
121
What are the skeletal and muscular changes to the PELVIS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Shape: HUMANS - bowl shaped (broader+shorter) support upright torso by increased stability, weight transmitted directly to legs APES - longer+narrower for greater attachment of gluteus medius muscles=helps quadrupedalism movement and better support to torso organsMovement: HUMANS - gluteus maximus muscle located at rear of hips to help pull femur back when walking APES - smaller gluteus maximus that lies on outside of hip to raise legs sideways
122
What is the skeletal change to the LEGS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Structure: HUMANS - legs are longer than arms as legs solely used for movement unlike arms, femur is longer=larger stride, thinner bone=lighter for more efficient movement (can be thinner as better weight distribution) APES - arms longer than legs as arms used more for weight distribution
123
What are the skeletal change to the KNEE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Valgus angle: HUMANS - femur slants downwards and inwards+angled at knee joint, this puts the weight of the body directly underneath the spinal cord (increased valgus angle) = better balancing when walking APES - femur goes vertically from pelvis (no valgus angle)Lateral condyles: HUMANS - increased buttressing of the bone at the base of the femur preventing sideways movement of leg when walking APES - no increased buttressing
124
What are the skeletal change to the FEET to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Carrying angle: HUMANS - feet place directly under spine to prevent swaying when walking APES - feet on outside of pelvis Shape: HUMANS - there is a convex arch of foot that acts like a spring allowing for better transfer of weight down foot to big toe APES - no arch (flat footed)Big toe: HUMANS - aligned with other toes to provide final thrust against ground for forward propulsion APES - divergent (slightly opposed) to allow for grasping action
125
What are the skeletal change to the SKULL to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Shape: HUMANS - rounded for increased brain capacity APES - flatter as doesn't need larger brain capacityCranium capacity: HUMAN - enlarged skull (1350cc)(particularly frontal lobe) to accommodate for larger prefrontal cortex=better abstract+thinking capacity APE - smaller skull (500cc) as no need large prefrontal cortexStructure: HUMANS - weight concentrated in cranium+reduced attachment sites for chewing muscles (cooking makes it easier to chew) and facial muscles (no need for aggressive faces), weight concentrated in jaw for attachment of muscles (tough diet=more strenght)Foramen magnum: HUMANS - in centre of underside of skull so its is placed directly on top of spine=better balance APES - back of skull for horizontal position of headOccipital condyles (for attachment of first vertebrate): HUMANS - far forward helps bipedalism APES - far back helps quadrupedalism
126
What are the skeletal change to the JAW/ARRANGEMENT to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Size: HUMANS - small in size as teeth are smaller APE - large as teeth are largeTeeth arrangement: HUMANS - teeth are arranged in 'v' arch shape+no diastema APES - are arranged in 'u' with parallel sides+diastema
127
What are the skeletal change to the TEETH to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Shape: HUMANS - smaller and more uniformed size suited for omnivorous diet+softer cooking APES - larger specialised teeth for grinding and chewing, large canines for defenceStructure: HUMANS - smaller molars+premolars and thinner enamel as less chewing/grinding=less wear and don't need to expend energy on making larger teeth/moving larger jaw=energy conserved APES - large molar+premolars and thick enamel as lots of chewing/grinding=more wear
128
What are the differences in BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Food: HUMANS - hunted/gathered then transported back to home/base and prepared APES - eaten where foundManipulation of objects: HUMANS - can perform fine careful movements APES - can only grab objects with rough/power grip
129
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed as alpha male has complete dominance over mates through ordered and respected social structure APES - advertised as males don't have complete dominance and social structure not rigid Sweat: HUMANS - produce a lot of sweat for efficient cooling APES - produce little sweat as little cooling requiredHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless for better cooling APES - very hair to keep warm in cool shade of forests
130
How has the structure of the HAND different in humans and apes? how does this help for their life style?
HUMAN - finger bones straight and thumb is long+fully opposable=very good grip on objects enabling complex tool making APES - finger bones curved and thumb short and not fully opposable=use of crude tools only and suits brachiation
131
How are humans generally adapted differently to apes?
Vertical centre of gravity - alignment of skull, trunk, legs and feetimproved bipedalism - valgus angle, arched feet, pelvic shape + vertical centre of gravityBrain structure - larger volume for larger prefrontal cortex etc. foramen magnum location, muscle attachment etc.Jaws/teeth - smaller teeth, more uniform size/shape and less muscle as food easier to chew [cooking] and less specialised
132
What systems do hominins have that enable better cooling? how does it help them with their life style?
-upright stance reduces sun exposure by 70%, lots of sweat glands to excrete lots of sweat and hairless to enable water to evaporate better and wind to cool down-due to active hunting style of hominis during the day, better cooling reduces the chance of heat stroke and can enable more activity during the heat of the day-being hairless also reduces the infestation of parasites and fleas on the skin reducing chances of infection/disease especially as humans began to make home bases which would increase the chance of diseases spreading through population
133
What are the benefits of bipedalism?
-Improves visibility by elevating the head higher-Reduces heat stroke by reducing the sun exposure to the body-Frees hands to enable for tool making, carrying objects etc.-more efficient transport for hunting purposes (run down prey until exhaustion) and better ability to travel (nomadic life style enables following of plenty or home territories where you travel from there)
134
What are disadvantages of bipedalism? what causes them?
-prone to back aches because of S-shaped spine and bowl shaped pelvis-slipped disc as weight of body carried by 2 limbs instead of 4-feet can become injured easily (strain, arches of feet collapse, distorted bones etc.) as weight of body only carried on 2 feet instead of 4-because of vertical position blood must be pumped down and then back up our legs via the varicose vein and require valves to work properly, when these fail they can lead to pain and complications-as the gut is no longer held in position from the spine by a broad ligament as in 4 legged animals, instead by abdominal muscles, intestines may bulge out leading to a hernia-with our new broad and short shaped pelvis the birth canal has been made smaller making child birth more difficult increasing chances of complication
135
What are the benefits of a bigger brain?
-enables for more brain cells-greater complexity of linkages between cells
136
How are human brains better than ape brains?
-brains bigger in volume (chimps=400cc, h.sapien=1350cc) enabling more brain cells (particularly in the cerebrum and frontal cortex)-more folding (40% more) increasing surface area of brain-Broca's area (speech production and language processing) and Wernicke's area (understanding and comprehension) developed in brain to enable speech
137
How much of a percent does the brain weigh and use in energy? what does this mean for sustaining a large brain? what cultural changes have allowed for the brain to be given an adequate supply of food?
-weighs 2% but consumes 20% of all energy-requires a lot of energy which means it has to be extremely beneficial to us if we are to sustain its high energy demands-we began to eat meat which is very energy dense and full of protein essential for our brain, we also cooked our food helping increase the absorption rate of our food increasing the amount of energy extracted and our abilities to hunt through the development of social interaction and better tools supplied a bigger quantity of food (particularly meat)
138
What are the differences between robust and gracile hominis
gracile=light and small in structurerobust=heavier and stronger structure
139
9
9
140
What is the selection pressure for bipedalism and how did this change the environment? how did this encourage bipedalism? describe
-climate change caused the environment to become drier-this drying of the environment caused the forests to recede and form savannah and being bipedal increased the efficiency of foraging-distance between tress increased as bush receded and being bipedal made it more efficient to travel between trees for shade/food-receding trees also increased sun exposure and being bipedal reduces sun exposure and reduced chance of heat stroke-receding trees reduced amount of food causing early hominis to venture to sea shore and bipedalism made it easier to wade and move over obstacles by sea shore
141
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed for more monogamy APES - advertised as less bigamous Sweat: HUMANS - lots of sweat glands and can profusely sweat to keep cool in open savannah APES - few sweat glands and little sweat as in the cool bushHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless except on head for better heat management APES - hairy to keep cool under forest
142
What are 4 possible theories as to why humans became bipedal?
-climate change created large areas of savannah which forced early hominins to forage in open areas and bipedal movement was more efficient (better viewing, better movement etc.)-early hominins would have been walking partially bipedally along branches etc. by the time savannah created, larger greater distances between trees meant that bipedal movement was more efficient (dont need to go down onto four limbs then back up to two, just stay on two)-less trees=less shade and by being bipedal ~70% less body exposed to hot sun + breeze more efficiently cools down body enabling better heat management-early hominins during times of hunger venture to sea and bipedal motion enabled better movement via wading+walking over obstacles
143
What are the advantages of bipedalism?
-more efficient movement over savannah, sea shore, obstacles and between trees = conservation of energy+greater range over terrain-enables head to be elevated much higher to see further/over grass to see prey, predator etc.-reduces heat exposure and enables better cooling-frees the hand so that hands can be used for things such as carrying, crafting, defending etc.-enables for the reduction of the chest muscles enabling the development of better vocal muscles for communication
144
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and multi-regional hypothesis?
-Both support that there was interbreeding between different populations-However multi-regional suggests we evolved as H.sapien out of africa while hybridisation supports we evolved in africa
145
What are the 3 dispersal theories?
Multi-regional hypothesis, Out of Africa hypothesis, Hybridisation model
146
Describe what multi-regional hypothesis says is the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-states that H.erectus left africa ~2mya and went to europe and asia-H.erectus slowly evolved into H.sapien everywhere-gene flow maintained between populations ensuring general 'modern human blueprint' was adapted by whole species-gene flow was limited leading to slight anatomical differences which were retained per region (ie asian, european, malaysian etc.)-based on fossil evidence of H.erectus with asian, european etc. like features
147
Describe what the out of africa hypothesis suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-suggests that H.erectus left africa ~2mya-suggest that H.sapien was fully evolved in africa ~170,000 ya -H.sapien left africa ~40,000 ya replacing H.erectus and H.heidelbergensis populations-no gene flow between european, asian, african etc. populations-based on mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) which shows that we all had a common ancestor traced back to africa ~170,000 ya-based on Y chromosome evidence which shows mutations from ~44,000 ya in modern african gene that is possessed by all asian populations therefore shows they must have been in africa then left-nuclear DNA evidence shows african population have greatest genetic diversity showing how out of africa populations created from founder effect which causes unrepresentative population to leave
148
Describe what the hybridisation model suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-Humans evolved in africa ~170,000 ya, left africa ~40,000 ya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor with denisovans ~1mya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor ~500,000 ya-Neanderthal and denisovans shared common ancestor ~200,000 ya-H.sapien interbred with other human populations in europe and asia (eg neanderthals and denisovans)-Proof as all NON-AFRICAN populations have 1-4% neanderthal DNA, shows that there was interbreeding in Middle East ~80,000 ya then populations split into europe+asia with new DNA-modern day Melanesians contain 4-6% denisovans DNA meaning interbreeding occured in siberia on route to melanesia
149
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and out of africa hypothesis?
-both suggest H.sapien evolved in africa ~170,000 ya and left ~40,000 ya-however hybridisation suggest interbreeding with established population while out of africa suggests no interbreeding/gene flow
150
The taste gene PTC is found in all humans and mutated around 100,000 years ago, however in african populations there are 7 different alleles but in non-african populations only 2 are found, what theory/s of dispersion supports this and why?
-supports the hybridisation and out-of-africa model-reduced genetic variation shown in non-african populations as there are less alleles, shows founder group left africa with unrepresentative gene pool or else all 7 alleles would be found in other populations disproves multiregional theory
151
What evidence is there to suggest that humans and neanderthals interbred?
-DNA evidence suggests 1-4% of nuclear DNA from non-african populations is neanderthal suggesting interbreeding-archaeological evidence has found bones of H.sapien with distinct neanderthal features
152
When and where did this neanderthal DNA enter our H.sapien lineage?
50,000 ya when H.sapien left africa through the middle east
153
What, where and when did Denisovan live?
-it is a species of hominis that lived in south east asia and lived from 200,000-40,000 ya
154
From the denisovan DNA found there appears to be very little genetic diversity (humans have 33% more), what does this tell us?
the denisovan population never got very big and therefore there was very little genetic diversity
155
What are some distinguishing features between denisovan, neanderthal and H.sapien?
-Denisovan and neanderthal were robust in their build (thicker bones, shorter and stockier, flaring hips, larger joint surfaces H.sapien gracile-Neanderthal had large flaring noses, humans are smaller-Neanderthal had larger brains (1450cc) than H.sapien (1350cc)
156
When were there food shortages and what caused them?
1.7 mya, 500,000 ya and 60,000 yacaused by the cooling and drying of the environment
157
What did the food shortages do to the hominin populations?
It drove them out to seek food elsewhere
158
What routes did hominins use leaving africa?
they followed the coastline east through to polynesia and into central asia, also went north into europe
159
What are the 5 types of tool cultures?
Oldowan tool culture, acheulian tool culture, mousterian tool culture, upper palaeolithic tool culture and neolithic tool culture
160
Describe the oldowan tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-roughly flaked to one side to create cutting edge, made of basalt, quartz or chert-made bu a single blow of one rock aganist another-multipurpose tools for cutting meat, skin and wood, scrapping hide, used as hammers and diggers-homo habilis created them
161
What is something significant about H.habilis using crystalline stones (eg basalt, quartz and chert) as tools?
It showed first evidence of when were able to identify differences between rocks, shows more abstract thinking due to better recognition of details such as texture, colour, weight etc.
162
Describe the acheulian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-tear drop shape with sharp edges around it and a point, still use the choppers of the oldowan culture but less common-chipping stone from both sides with another rock-hand axes, picks and cleavers-homo erectus
163
What are some innovations in the design of the acheulian tools?
-chipping from both sides created a symmetrical shape (not one sided like oldowan, shows crafting)-shaped tools into recognisable and repeatable shapes (not random like oldowan, shows crafting)-these tools were created with variation to better suit a purpose (specialisation is new concept=more complex technology)
164
Describe the mousterian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more crafted and further specialised than acheulian tools with many variations for many jobs, often made of flint, used tools to create tools, combined with other components (eg spears shaft+spearhead=spear)-shaped stone into preliminary shape (rounded smooth surface) then striking off areas to create edges/points-spears, crafting wood, tools to make tools-Neanderthal
165
What are some important aspects in the development of mousterian tools?
-became a standardised tool making procedure-tools allowed for future adjustment (eg reshaping blade, resharpening etc.)-less use of large multipurpose tools, instead specialised tools -combination of tools (eg shaft+head=spear) enable specialisation keystone for specialised tool creating labour=enabling of development of wealth-tools for preparation of hides for clothing, shoes, bedding, shelter, bags etc. show social organisation=stability (improvement on primitive hominins)
166
Describe the upper palaeolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more specialised tools, small fine tools developed, new materials used-varied greatly, tool making process not longer set in stone but per tool and material-needles, spears, hooks, arrow heads, spear throwers, jewellery, figurines-Homo sapien (~90,000-12,000 ya)
167
What does the creating of the new tools in palaeolithic culture indicate about their technological and social advancements?
-advances in clothing, shelter, utensils, ornaments, medicine, nutrition and rituals-social status now important and shown through outward physical manifestation (eg jewellery) = clear hierarchy/wealth + religion -symbolism lead to the development of pictures/counting tallies used to signify historical record, calendar time which all lead to WRITTEN LANGUAGE
168
How did the creating of tools then increased our efficiency at hunting change our eating habits?
-Better tools enable for better hunting abilities = better diets-also led to over hunting and extinction of species, this sped up process of development of agriculture
169
Describe the neolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-development of tools for agricultural uses, greater use of symbolism-varies greatly from tool to tool but new technique of pressure flaking was used to give polished look-scythes, scrapers, plows etc-H.sapien (6,000 ya - now)
170
What is the first species to control fire?
H.erectus
171
What evidence is there to suggest controlling of fire?
-Hearth formed (eg ring of stones around charcoal)-charcoal sites + charred bones found
172
What are some advantages of using fire?
-provided warmth = ability to live in colder climates (eg europe+asia during ice age)-provides light = enable groups to operate for longer during day to do activities, eg grooming/chatting/dancing etc. (social bonding), tool making-protection = keeps animals away as they don't like fire-health = cooking food kills bacteria and parasites-tool making = hardens spear to make them last longer
173
What are some disadvantage of using fire?
-injury = fire is hot and can burn-environmental damage = fires can get out of control and burn land-attract competition = fire + smoke is bright so is easily visible at day/night for other hominis-work required = to start fire/gather resources labour intensive
174
What is the most important use of fire in our development as humans? why?
-cooking-kills parasites/bacteria reducing chances of getting sick = reduced death rates-breaks down proteins and fats making it easier to digest = more nutritionally available = better brain development
175
What was the first hominin species to be bipedal and when did it live? what would have made it bipedal? what are some characteristics of it?
-Australopithecus afarensis, 3.9-2.4 mya-need to see over savannah grass to spot predators, to reduce sun exposure and freeing of the hands for function (carrying etc.)-brain size=400-500cc, height=1.1-1.5m (sexual dimorphism) ape like face (low forehead, bony brow, flat nose, no chin), human like teeth (small canines + better suited for omnivorous diet), human/ape shaped jaw, long arms relative to legs, arched foot and big toe, valgus angle increased and gracile structure
176
Describe the features of australopithecus robustus and when it lived
-2.2-1.5 mya-brains size=530cc, very thick jaw, large pre/molars, small canines+incisors (mainly herbivorous), sagittal crest for attachment of extra muscles, robust structure, bipedal
177
What was the first homo species and when did it live? describe it and what it was the first species to do
-homo habilis, 2.4-1.5mya-had chin, brain size=500-800cc, change in pelvis structure allowed for more upright stance, more omnivorous teeth structure (large incisor and molars), gracile structure-first species to make tools
178
A.robust and its line died out while H.habilis lead onto many other homo species to us today. What enabled H.habilis to excel in its environment compared to A.robust?
H.habilis was adaptable while A.robust was to specialised to its specific environment. This meant that as the enviro changed, H.habilis could change by creating tools for the purpose and adapting its died (omnivorous) while A.robust did not have the abstract thinking to create tools and had a limited diet (herbivore)
179
What are the 8 general trend in characteristics as the homo genus evolved?
-increased size+complexity of the brain (especially frontal lobe)-development of more advanced language-further development of s-shaped curve in spine-legs continue to become longer proportional to arms-teeth become smaller+less enamel-smaller jaw and more defined chin-more rounded cranium with bulging forehead-development of group living and culture/tool making
180
How did a more complex thought process directly benefit the lives of early hominis (eg H.habilis)
-allowed for basic tool making enabling better access to nutrients from animals (eg bone marrow)-better organisation of hunting enabling more successful hunts-better ability to find other foods not necessarily part of the norm
181
How were H.neanderthal and H.sapien adapted differently?
-H.sapien adapted to the hot climate of africa (tall, thin and dark skinned)-H.neanderthal adapted perfectly to cold ice age european environment (short, stocky, broad noses, short limbed, white)
182
How did the technology of H.sapien change over the same period as H.neanderthal?
-H.neanderthal had very little change in tool making and tools using the same scraper, hand axes, spears etc. over 250,000 years-H.sapien changed as needs were required using different materials, making different tools etc.
183
How were the social groups of H.sapien and H.neanderthal different?
-H.sapien lived in large social groups and made regular contact with other social groups-H.neanderthal lived in small groups of 7-25 and made little or no contact with other groups
184
How did the adaptations, change in tool cultures and social strustures of H.sapien and H.neanderthal lead to H.sapien to be the last homo genus?
-As environment changed, H.neanderthal being too specialised could not adapt to new environment as their tool culture didn't change, their diets were restricted to what they knew and they didn't share ideas with other groups-H.sapien were adaptable and created tools as they were needed meaning they could alter the environment as they needed+sharing of ideas-Because both species were competing for the same resources, H.sapien was better adapted to the change, H.neanderthal didn't change and continue to follow large game species in forests into the valleys leading to their demise as H.sapien spread and took over europe
185
When did homo sapien begin to start wearing clothes? how earlier had we lost our fur?
-170,000 ya-830,000 ya (lost fur 1mya)
186
What are 2 possible reasons as to why we lost our fur?
-To get rid of the parasites that infested our fur-emerging from the cool forests to hot savannah, fur caused overheating therefore shed it to spend more time in sun
187
What is a possible trigger of the manufacturing of clothing?
The coldest ice age ever ~180,000 ya
188
How long have humans been doing body paint and wearing animals skins (not crafted into clothing)?
Entire human history
189
When did ornamentation begin to show up?
75,000 ya
190
When and what did we create needles from? how did this help our clothe making abilities?
-35,000 ya from bone-enable the creating of more sophisticated tailoring of clothing and multi layering
191
How did neanderthal clothing differ to homo sapien clothing?
Homo sapien more sophisticated (tailored, multilayered, stitched etc), neanderthal layered on animal skins with no tailoring
192
What evidence is there that neanderthals could have worn clothing?
-stone awls/borers used to punch holes in leather/wood for cloth making-wear marks on incisor teeth similar to Inuit women who chewed mens leather boots before hunting
193
How did clothing abilities affect homo sapien and neanderthals future survival?
-unsophicated clothing couldn't keep neanderthal sufficently warm during cold snaps of 40-35,000 ya contributing to dwindling population-homo sapien's sophicated clothing kept them warmer during cold snaps + allowed them to migrate to colder places therefore take over more areas
194
What was (and are) the purposes of decoration such as pierced mammoth ivory beads sewn onto clothing? why?
-sign of wealth-it takes many hours to construct their jewellery indicating high level of wealth by availability of free time away from hunting
195
What were the early forms of communication?
Facial expressions, body language and gestures followed by primitive noises (eg grunts and screeches)
196
What are the 2 regions of the brain associated with language?
Broca's and Wernicke's area
197
What species is believed to be the first to have complex communication (speaking)? What indicates this?
-Homo erectus-increasing standardisation of tool making
198
What species is most associated with the development of art? what kind of art did they produce?
-Homo sapien-cave paintings of animals (eg horses, deer, oxen and mammoth), bone and ivory carving (15-10,000 ya FYI)
199
What could have been a cause and function of ancient artwork?
-developed as a humans got more free time-Method of communication traditions and values of tribe and for visual aesthetics + enables cultural info to be shared down generations
200
What species showed the first signs of spirituality? How did they show this? what does it show?
-Neanderthal-burying the dead and decoration grave with flowers, commonly aligned in east-west position, legs curled up, head resting on stone, bodies decorated with red ochre and black MgO-possible indicates a form of religion
201
What was the significance of burying individuals?
-removed diseases/bacteria found in dead=better health-burial with tools, food, flowers etc. indicates caring for the dead=caring for each other in living=establishment of greater social bonds which help overcome hazards enabling better survival-shows that there was a belief in religion and the afterlife
202
What is hunter gatherer and division of labour and how did it affect social groups? What did method of survival require to be successful?
-the splitting of labours in a social group for the search of food, ie women gathering roots, fruits, veges etc. while men hunted-enabled groups to gather a widely varied diet (healthier), encouraged development of tools for hunting, transporting, preparing of food etc, led to more complex social structures encouraging larger groups to form therefore encouraged development of brain (divvying of labour times enable for better child education, increase cultural knowledge to pass on), sharing of foods (kinship), improve hunting (larger animals can be killed)/gathering meant more food (meat, veges etc)/resources (fur, sinew, ivory etc)=better chances of survival-co-operation and communication skills
203
Define domestication
Bringing plants and animals under human control
204
When and what was the first animal to be domesticated?
Dog 12,000 ya
205
When and what was the first plant to be domesticated?
Wheat 10,000 ya
206
Why were animals domesticated first?
Better suited to nomadic life as don't have to stay in one place for food, can move animals around
207
What are the advantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-animals can be more valuable alive for their fur, milk, eggs etc as a steady income-can be killed/harvested at optimum time=most nutritious food possible-herd of animals enable more meat to be 'stored' as live animals don't rot-when animals domesticated can be used to help physical labour, eg cattle=lifting, dogs=hunting-animals+crops source of wealth and can be traded-enables for the settling down of population to form towns/cities=specialised occupation to help farming (carpentry, medicine, tech etc), enabled new tech to develop (eg potter, smelting, maths etc.)-further selective breeding enabled for yeasts for bread, bees for honey, special breeds of cattle etc.
208
What are the disadvantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-certain breeds of animals/plants totally dependent on humans-decreased gene pool=more susceptible to diseases-monoculture practice leads to over reliance of one crop putting people at risk of famine in disease-permanent settlements lead to increased pollution-soil fertility decreases as land continuously farmed and nutrients extracted-settlements=increased population density=increased chances of disease spreads
209
What kind of region did agriculture originate from (generally and specifically)? Why?
-warm climates and easy access to water-Fertile crescent as the soil was moist from surrounding rivers and there was lots of sun as in the middle east
210
Hunter gathers are nomadic, why?
-In search of food and water-moving as seasons change-meet friends/relatives/tradeing-hunters follow animals
211
Though humans were nomadic, there is evidence that we built shelters and lived in them for a large part of the year, why?
when the environment was good (good weather, lots of water, plenty game etc.) would settle down temporarily and use it
212
Define biological evolution
any genetic change in a population that can be inherited
213
define cultural evolution
a change in the learned behaviour from one generation to the next
214
What is the evidence that language developed? What does it show possible language?
-discovery of a thyroid bone-used to hold the vocal chords in place in modern humans so evidence of it suggests early speaking capabilities
215
How has the freeing of hands aided the mental development of hominis?
-freeing of the hands allowed us to use them for more than physical support, ie crafting of tools, decoration, throwing etc.-this aided mental development as it encouraged higher intelligence to maximise the use of hands
216
What are the hominoids?
Chimps, gorillas, orang-utans and humans and thier ancestors
217
What are the hominids?
Chimps, gorillas, humans and their ancestors
218
What are hominins?
Humans and their ancestors
219
What are primates?
New world monkeys, old world monkeys, apes and humans
220
What are the closets relatives to primates?
Insectivores, eg mole, hedgehogs etc.
221
How much genetic code is shared between humans and chimpazines?
99%
222
What are many adaptations for primates focused on?
Tree dwelling
223
What are some adaptations primates have for tree dwelling?
Well developed collar bone (clavicle), 5 digit hands and feet, walking on the soles of feet (plantigrade foot posture), long nimble limbs
224
What are the 2 types of locomotion primates perform, define them
Arboreal locomotion - moving through the treesGround locomotion - moving on the ground
225
What are the 3 types of arboreal locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
Quadrupedalism - arms and legs are of equal length and importance, eg lemursModified quadrupedalism - Leaping an climbing, trunk is vertical before and after leaps+plus in resting eg tarsiersBrachiation - use of the arms to swing through trees and arms become longer, eg gibbons
226
What are the 3 types of ground locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
Terrestrial Quadrupedalism - using all four limbs all the time and all 4 limbs of similar length, eg baboonsKnuckle walking quadrupedalism- walking on all four limbs but on the front two limbs, on their knuckles and on the back two on the surface of their feet and front 2 limbs longer than back 2, eg chimpanzeeBipedalism - walking on two legs and the hands are not used for motion at all, legs longer than arms eg humans
227
What is a skeletal change to the CHEST to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Structure: HUMANS - rib cage flattened so centre of gravity is as little far forward as possible minimising tendency to fall forward APES - chest is flattened to the sides helping to lower centre of gravity
228
What are the skeletal change to the SPINE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Shape: HUMANS - S shaped curve to provide support and balance for upright position of torso and places weight directly above joint between spine and pelvis APES - C shaped spine promotes quadrupedal locomotion Neural spines: HUMANS - short neural spines (points bits on spine FYI) are short as little muscle required to hold head up APES - long neural spines as need for large surface for muscle attachment to support large head in horizontal position
229
What are the skeletal and muscular changes to the PELVIS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Shape: HUMANS - bowl shaped (broader+shorter) support upright torso by increased stability, weight transmitted directly to legs APES - longer+narrower for greater attachment of gluteus medius muscles=helps quadrupedalism movement and better support to torso organsMovement: HUMANS - gluteus maximus muscle located at rear of hips to help pull femur back when walking APES - smaller gluteus maximus that lies on outside of hip to raise legs sideways
230
What is the skeletal change to the LEGS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Structure: HUMANS - legs are longer than arms as legs solely used for movement unlike arms, femur is longer=larger stride, thinner bone=lighter for more efficient movement (can be thinner as better weight distribution) APES - arms longer than legs as arms used more for weight distribution
231
What are the skeletal change to the KNEE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Valgus angle: HUMANS - femur slants downwards and inwards+angled at knee joint, this puts the weight of the body directly underneath the spinal cord (increased valgus angle) = better balancing when walking APES - femur goes vertically from pelvis (no valgus angle)Lateral condyles: HUMANS - increased buttressing of the bone at the base of the femur preventing sideways movement of leg when walking APES - no increased buttressing
232
What are the skeletal change to the FEET to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Carrying angle: HUMANS - feet place directly under spine to prevent swaying when walking APES - feet on outside of pelvis Shape: HUMANS - there is a convex arch of foot that acts like a spring allowing for better transfer of weight down foot to big toe APES - no arch (flat footed)Big toe: HUMANS - aligned with other toes to provide final thrust against ground for forward propulsion APES - divergent (slightly opposed) to allow for grasping action
233
What are the skeletal change to the SKULL to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Shape: HUMANS - rounded for increased brain capacity APES - flatter as doesn't need larger brain capacityCranium capacity: HUMAN - enlarged skull (1350cc)(particularly frontal lobe) to accommodate for larger prefrontal cortex=better abstract+thinking capacity APE - smaller skull (500cc) as no need large prefrontal cortexStructure: HUMANS - weight concentrated in cranium+reduced attachment sites for chewing muscles (cooking makes it easier to chew) and facial muscles (no need for aggressive faces), weight concentrated in jaw for attachment of muscles (tough diet=more strenght)Foramen magnum: HUMANS - in centre of underside of skull so its is placed directly on top of spine=better balance APES - back of skull for horizontal position of headOccipital condyles (for attachment of first vertebrate): HUMANS - far forward helps bipedalism APES - far back helps quadrupedalism
234
What are the skeletal change to the JAW/ARRANGEMENT to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Size: HUMANS - small in size as teeth are smaller APE - large as teeth are largeTeeth arrangement: HUMANS - teeth are arranged in 'v' arch shape+no diastema APES - are arranged in 'u' with parallel sides+diastema
235
What are the skeletal change to the TEETH to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Shape: HUMANS - smaller and more uniformed size suited for omnivorous diet+softer cooking APES - larger specialised teeth for grinding and chewing, large canines for defenceStructure: HUMANS - smaller molars+premolars and thinner enamel as less chewing/grinding=less wear and don't need to expend energy on making larger teeth/moving larger jaw=energy conserved APES - large molar+premolars and thick enamel as lots of chewing/grinding=more wear
236
What are the differences in BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Food: HUMANS - hunted/gathered then transported back to home/base and prepared APES - eaten where foundManipulation of objects: HUMANS - can perform fine careful movements APES - can only grab objects with rough/power grip
237
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed as alpha male has complete dominance over mates through ordered and respected social structure APES - advertised as males don't have complete dominance and social structure not rigid Sweat: HUMANS - produce a lot of sweat for efficient cooling APES - produce little sweat as little cooling requiredHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless for better cooling APES - very hair to keep warm in cool shade of forests
238
How has the structure of the HAND different in humans and apes? how does this help for their life style?
HUMAN - finger bones straight and thumb is long+fully opposable=very good grip on objects enabling complex tool making APES - finger bones curved and thumb short and not fully opposable=use of crude tools only and suits brachiation
239
How are humans generally adapted differently to apes?
Vertical centre of gravity - alignment of skull, trunk, legs and feetimproved bipedalism - valgus angle, arched feet, pelvic shape + vertical centre of gravityBrain structure - larger volume for larger prefrontal cortex etc. foramen magnum location, muscle attachment etc.Jaws/teeth - smaller teeth, more uniform size/shape and less muscle as food easier to chew [cooking] and less specialised
240
What systems do hominins have that enable better cooling? how does it help them with their life style?
-upright stance reduces sun exposure by 70%, lots of sweat glands to excrete lots of sweat and hairless to enable water to evaporate better and wind to cool down-due to active hunting style of hominis during the day, better cooling reduces the chance of heat stroke and can enable more activity during the heat of the day-being hairless also reduces the infestation of parasites and fleas on the skin reducing chances of infection/disease especially as humans began to make home bases which would increase the chance of diseases spreading through population
241
What are the benefits of bipedalism?
-Improves visibility by elevating the head higher-Reduces heat stroke by reducing the sun exposure to the body-Frees hands to enable for tool making, carrying objects etc.-more efficient transport for hunting purposes (run down prey until exhaustion) and better ability to travel (nomadic life style enables following of plenty or home territories where you travel from there)
242
What are disadvantages of bipedalism? what causes them?
-prone to back aches because of S-shaped spine and bowl shaped pelvis-slipped disc as weight of body carried by 2 limbs instead of 4-feet can become injured easily (strain, arches of feet collapse, distorted bones etc.) as weight of body only carried on 2 feet instead of 4-because of vertical position blood must be pumped down and then back up our legs via the varicose vein and require valves to work properly, when these fail they can lead to pain and complications-as the gut is no longer held in position from the spine by a broad ligament as in 4 legged animals, instead by abdominal muscles, intestines may bulge out leading to a hernia-with our new broad and short shaped pelvis the birth canal has been made smaller making child birth more difficult increasing chances of complication
243
What are the benefits of a bigger brain?
-enables for more brain cells-greater complexity of linkages between cells
244
How are human brains better than ape brains?
-brains bigger in volume (chimps=400cc, h.sapien=1350cc) enabling more brain cells (particularly in the cerebrum and frontal cortex)-more folding (40% more) increasing surface area of brain-Broca's area (speech production and language processing) and Wernicke's area (understanding and comprehension) developed in brain to enable speech
245
How much of a percent does the brain weigh and use in energy? what does this mean for sustaining a large brain? what cultural changes have allowed for the brain to be given an adequate supply of food?
-weighs 2% but consumes 20% of all energy-requires a lot of energy which means it has to be extremely beneficial to us if we are to sustain its high energy demands-we began to eat meat which is very energy dense and full of protein essential for our brain, we also cooked our food helping increase the absorption rate of our food increasing the amount of energy extracted and our abilities to hunt through the development of social interaction and better tools supplied a bigger quantity of food (particularly meat)
246
What are the differences between robust and gracile hominis
gracile=light and small in structurerobust=heavier and stronger structure
247
9
9
248
What is the selection pressure for bipedalism and how did this change the environment? how did this encourage bipedalism? describe
-climate change caused the environment to become drier-this drying of the environment caused the forests to recede and form savannah and being bipedal increased the efficiency of foraging-distance between tress increased as bush receded and being bipedal made it more efficient to travel between trees for shade/food-receding trees also increased sun exposure and being bipedal reduces sun exposure and reduced chance of heat stroke-receding trees reduced amount of food causing early hominis to venture to sea shore and bipedalism made it easier to wade and move over obstacles by sea shore
249
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed for more monogamy APES - advertised as less bigamous Sweat: HUMANS - lots of sweat glands and can profusely sweat to keep cool in open savannah APES - few sweat glands and little sweat as in the cool bushHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless except on head for better heat management APES - hairy to keep cool under forest
250
What are 4 possible theories as to why humans became bipedal?
-climate change created large areas of savannah which forced early hominins to forage in open areas and bipedal movement was more efficient (better viewing, better movement etc.)-early hominins would have been walking partially bipedally along branches etc. by the time savannah created, larger greater distances between trees meant that bipedal movement was more efficient (dont need to go down onto four limbs then back up to two, just stay on two)-less trees=less shade and by being bipedal ~70% less body exposed to hot sun + breeze more efficiently cools down body enabling better heat management-early hominins during times of hunger venture to sea and bipedal motion enabled better movement via wading+walking over obstacles
251
What are the advantages of bipedalism?
-more efficient movement over savannah, sea shore, obstacles and between trees = conservation of energy+greater range over terrain-enables head to be elevated much higher to see further/over grass to see prey, predator etc.-reduces heat exposure and enables better cooling-frees the hand so that hands can be used for things such as carrying, crafting, defending etc.-enables for the reduction of the chest muscles enabling the development of better vocal muscles for communication
252
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and multi-regional hypothesis?
-Both support that there was interbreeding between different populations-However multi-regional suggests we evolved as H.sapien out of africa while hybridisation supports we evolved in africa
253
What are the 3 dispersal theories?
Multi-regional hypothesis, Out of Africa hypothesis, Hybridisation model
254
Describe what multi-regional hypothesis says is the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-states that H.erectus left africa ~2mya and went to europe and asia-H.erectus slowly evolved into H.sapien everywhere-gene flow maintained between populations ensuring general 'modern human blueprint' was adapted by whole species-gene flow was limited leading to slight anatomical differences which were retained per region (ie asian, european, malaysian etc.)-based on fossil evidence of H.erectus with asian, european etc. like features
255
Describe what the out of africa hypothesis suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-suggests that H.erectus left africa ~2mya-suggest that H.sapien was fully evolved in africa ~170,000 ya -H.sapien left africa ~40,000 ya replacing H.erectus and H.heidelbergensis populations-no gene flow between european, asian, african etc. populations-based on mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) which shows that we all had a common ancestor traced back to africa ~170,000 ya-based on Y chromosome evidence which shows mutations from ~44,000 ya in modern african gene that is possessed by all asian populations therefore shows they must have been in africa then left-nuclear DNA evidence shows african population have greatest genetic diversity showing how out of africa populations created from founder effect which causes unrepresentative population to leave
256
Describe what the hybridisation model suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-Humans evolved in africa ~170,000 ya, left africa ~40,000 ya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor with denisovans ~1mya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor ~500,000 ya-Neanderthal and denisovans shared common ancestor ~200,000 ya-H.sapien interbred with other human populations in europe and asia (eg neanderthals and denisovans)-Proof as all NON-AFRICAN populations have 1-4% neanderthal DNA, shows that there was interbreeding in Middle East ~80,000 ya then populations split into europe+asia with new DNA-modern day Melanesians contain 4-6% denisovans DNA meaning interbreeding occured in siberia on route to melanesia
257
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and out of africa hypothesis?
-both suggest H.sapien evolved in africa ~170,000 ya and left ~40,000 ya-however hybridisation suggest interbreeding with established population while out of africa suggests no interbreeding/gene flow
258
The taste gene PTC is found in all humans and mutated around 100,000 years ago, however in african populations there are 7 different alleles but in non-african populations only 2 are found, what theory/s of dispersion supports this and why?
-supports the hybridisation and out-of-africa model-reduced genetic variation shown in non-african populations as there are less alleles, shows founder group left africa with unrepresentative gene pool or else all 7 alleles would be found in other populations disproves multiregional theory
259
What evidence is there to suggest that humans and neanderthals interbred?
-DNA evidence suggests 1-4% of nuclear DNA from non-african populations is neanderthal suggesting interbreeding-archaeological evidence has found bones of H.sapien with distinct neanderthal features
260
When and where did this neanderthal DNA enter our H.sapien lineage?
50,000 ya when H.sapien left africa through the middle east
261
What, where and when did Denisovan live?
-it is a species of hominis that lived in south east asia and lived from 200,000-40,000 ya
262
From the denisovan DNA found there appears to be very little genetic diversity (humans have 33% more), what does this tell us?
the denisovan population never got very big and therefore there was very little genetic diversity
263
What are some distinguishing features between denisovan, neanderthal and H.sapien?
-Denisovan and neanderthal were robust in their build (thicker bones, shorter and stockier, flaring hips, larger joint surfaces H.sapien gracile-Neanderthal had large flaring noses, humans are smaller-Neanderthal had larger brains (1450cc) than H.sapien (1350cc)
264
When were there food shortages and what caused them?
1.7 mya, 500,000 ya and 60,000 yacaused by the cooling and drying of the environment
265
What did the food shortages do to the hominin populations?
It drove them out to seek food elsewhere
266
What routes did hominins use leaving africa?
they followed the coastline east through to polynesia and into central asia, also went north into europe
267
What are the 5 types of tool cultures?
Oldowan tool culture, acheulian tool culture, mousterian tool culture, upper palaeolithic tool culture and neolithic tool culture
268
Describe the oldowan tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-roughly flaked to one side to create cutting edge, made of basalt, quartz or chert-made bu a single blow of one rock aganist another-multipurpose tools for cutting meat, skin and wood, scrapping hide, used as hammers and diggers-homo habilis created them
269
What is something significant about H.habilis using crystalline stones (eg basalt, quartz and chert) as tools?
It showed first evidence of when were able to identify differences between rocks, shows more abstract thinking due to better recognition of details such as texture, colour, weight etc.
270
Describe the acheulian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-tear drop shape with sharp edges around it and a point, still use the choppers of the oldowan culture but less common-chipping stone from both sides with another rock-hand axes, picks and cleavers-homo erectus
271
What are some innovations in the design of the acheulian tools?
-chipping from both sides created a symmetrical shape (not one sided like oldowan, shows crafting)-shaped tools into recognisable and repeatable shapes (not random like oldowan, shows crafting)-these tools were created with variation to better suit a purpose (specialisation is new concept=more complex technology)
272
Describe the mousterian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more crafted and further specialised than acheulian tools with many variations for many jobs, often made of flint, used tools to create tools, combined with other components (eg spears shaft+spearhead=spear)-shaped stone into preliminary shape (rounded smooth surface) then striking off areas to create edges/points-spears, crafting wood, tools to make tools-Neanderthal
273
What are some important aspects in the development of mousterian tools?
-became a standardised tool making procedure-tools allowed for future adjustment (eg reshaping blade, resharpening etc.)-less use of large multipurpose tools, instead specialised tools -combination of tools (eg shaft+head=spear) enable specialisation keystone for specialised tool creating labour=enabling of development of wealth-tools for preparation of hides for clothing, shoes, bedding, shelter, bags etc. show social organisation=stability (improvement on primitive hominins)
274
Describe the upper palaeolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more specialised tools, small fine tools developed, new materials used-varied greatly, tool making process not longer set in stone but per tool and material-needles, spears, hooks, arrow heads, spear throwers, jewellery, figurines-Homo sapien (~90,000-12,000 ya)
275
What does the creating of the new tools in palaeolithic culture indicate about their technological and social advancements?
-advances in clothing, shelter, utensils, ornaments, medicine, nutrition and rituals-social status now important and shown through outward physical manifestation (eg jewellery) = clear hierarchy/wealth + religion -symbolism lead to the development of pictures/counting tallies used to signify historical record, calendar time which all lead to WRITTEN LANGUAGE
276
How did the creating of tools then increased our efficiency at hunting change our eating habits?
-Better tools enable for better hunting abilities = better diets-also led to over hunting and extinction of species, this sped up process of development of agriculture
277
Describe the neolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-development of tools for agricultural uses, greater use of symbolism-varies greatly from tool to tool but new technique of pressure flaking was used to give polished look-scythes, scrapers, plows etc-H.sapien (6,000 ya - now)
278
What is the first species to control fire?
H.erectus
279
What evidence is there to suggest controlling of fire?
-Hearth formed (eg ring of stones around charcoal)-charcoal sites + charred bones found
280
What are some advantages of using fire?
-provided warmth = ability to live in colder climates (eg europe+asia during ice age)-provides light = enable groups to operate for longer during day to do activities, eg grooming/chatting/dancing etc. (social bonding), tool making-protection = keeps animals away as they don't like fire-health = cooking food kills bacteria and parasites-tool making = hardens spear to make them last longer
281
What are some disadvantage of using fire?
-injury = fire is hot and can burn-environmental damage = fires can get out of control and burn land-attract competition = fire + smoke is bright so is easily visible at day/night for other hominis-work required = to start fire/gather resources labour intensive
282
What is the most important use of fire in our development as humans? why?
-cooking-kills parasites/bacteria reducing chances of getting sick = reduced death rates-breaks down proteins and fats making it easier to digest = more nutritionally available = better brain development
283
What was the first hominin species to be bipedal and when did it live? what would have made it bipedal? what are some characteristics of it?
-Australopithecus afarensis, 3.9-2.4 mya-need to see over savannah grass to spot predators, to reduce sun exposure and freeing of the hands for function (carrying etc.)-brain size=400-500cc, height=1.1-1.5m (sexual dimorphism) ape like face (low forehead, bony brow, flat nose, no chin), human like teeth (small canines + better suited for omnivorous diet), human/ape shaped jaw, long arms relative to legs, arched foot and big toe, valgus angle increased and gracile structure
284
Describe the features of australopithecus robustus and when it lived
-2.2-1.5 mya-brains size=530cc, very thick jaw, large pre/molars, small canines+incisors (mainly herbivorous), sagittal crest for attachment of extra muscles, robust structure, bipedal
285
What was the first homo species and when did it live? describe it and what it was the first species to do
-homo habilis, 2.4-1.5mya-had chin, brain size=500-800cc, change in pelvis structure allowed for more upright stance, more omnivorous teeth structure (large incisor and molars), gracile structure-first species to make tools
286
A.robust and its line died out while H.habilis lead onto many other homo species to us today. What enabled H.habilis to excel in its environment compared to A.robust?
H.habilis was adaptable while A.robust was to specialised to its specific environment. This meant that as the enviro changed, H.habilis could change by creating tools for the purpose and adapting its died (omnivorous) while A.robust did not have the abstract thinking to create tools and had a limited diet (herbivore)
287
What are the 8 general trend in characteristics as the homo genus evolved?
-increased size+complexity of the brain (especially frontal lobe)-development of more advanced language-further development of s-shaped curve in spine-legs continue to become longer proportional to arms-teeth become smaller+less enamel-smaller jaw and more defined chin-more rounded cranium with bulging forehead-development of group living and culture/tool making
288
How did a more complex thought process directly benefit the lives of early hominis (eg H.habilis)
-allowed for basic tool making enabling better access to nutrients from animals (eg bone marrow)-better organisation of hunting enabling more successful hunts-better ability to find other foods not necessarily part of the norm
289
How were H.neanderthal and H.sapien adapted differently?
-H.sapien adapted to the hot climate of africa (tall, thin and dark skinned)-H.neanderthal adapted perfectly to cold ice age european environment (short, stocky, broad noses, short limbed, white)
290
How did the technology of H.sapien change over the same period as H.neanderthal?
-H.neanderthal had very little change in tool making and tools using the same scraper, hand axes, spears etc. over 250,000 years-H.sapien changed as needs were required using different materials, making different tools etc.
291
How were the social groups of H.sapien and H.neanderthal different?
-H.sapien lived in large social groups and made regular contact with other social groups-H.neanderthal lived in small groups of 7-25 and made little or no contact with other groups
292
How did the adaptations, change in tool cultures and social strustures of H.sapien and H.neanderthal lead to H.sapien to be the last homo genus?
-As environment changed, H.neanderthal being too specialised could not adapt to new environment as their tool culture didn't change, their diets were restricted to what they knew and they didn't share ideas with other groups-H.sapien were adaptable and created tools as they were needed meaning they could alter the environment as they needed+sharing of ideas-Because both species were competing for the same resources, H.sapien was better adapted to the change, H.neanderthal didn't change and continue to follow large game species in forests into the valleys leading to their demise as H.sapien spread and took over europe
293
When did homo sapien begin to start wearing clothes? how earlier had we lost our fur?
-170,000 ya-830,000 ya (lost fur 1mya)
294
What are 2 possible reasons as to why we lost our fur?
-To get rid of the parasites that infested our fur-emerging from the cool forests to hot savannah, fur caused overheating therefore shed it to spend more time in sun
295
What is a possible trigger of the manufacturing of clothing?
The coldest ice age ever ~180,000 ya
296
How long have humans been doing body paint and wearing animals skins (not crafted into clothing)?
Entire human history
297
When did ornamentation begin to show up?
75,000 ya
298
When and what did we create needles from? how did this help our clothe making abilities?
-35,000 ya from bone-enable the creating of more sophisticated tailoring of clothing and multi layering
299
How did neanderthal clothing differ to homo sapien clothing?
Homo sapien more sophisticated (tailored, multilayered, stitched etc), neanderthal layered on animal skins with no tailoring
300
What evidence is there that neanderthals could have worn clothing?
-stone awls/borers used to punch holes in leather/wood for cloth making-wear marks on incisor teeth similar to Inuit women who chewed mens leather boots before hunting
301
How did clothing abilities affect homo sapien and neanderthals future survival?
-unsophicated clothing couldn't keep neanderthal sufficently warm during cold snaps of 40-35,000 ya contributing to dwindling population-homo sapien's sophicated clothing kept them warmer during cold snaps + allowed them to migrate to colder places therefore take over more areas
302
What was (and are) the purposes of decoration such as pierced mammoth ivory beads sewn onto clothing? why?
-sign of wealth-it takes many hours to construct their jewellery indicating high level of wealth by availability of free time away from hunting
303
What were the early forms of communication?
Facial expressions, body language and gestures followed by primitive noises (eg grunts and screeches)
304
What are the 2 regions of the brain associated with language?
Broca's and Wernicke's area
305
What species is believed to be the first to have complex communication (speaking)? What indicates this?
-Homo erectus-increasing standardisation of tool making
306
What species is most associated with the development of art? what kind of art did they produce?
-Homo sapien-cave paintings of animals (eg horses, deer, oxen and mammoth), bone and ivory carving (15-10,000 ya FYI)
307
What could have been a cause and function of ancient artwork?
-developed as a humans got more free time-Method of communication traditions and values of tribe and for visual aesthetics + enables cultural info to be shared down generations
308
What species showed the first signs of spirituality? How did they show this? what does it show?
-Neanderthal-burying the dead and decoration grave with flowers, commonly aligned in east-west position, legs curled up, head resting on stone, bodies decorated with red ochre and black MgO-possible indicates a form of religion
309
What was the significance of burying individuals?
-removed diseases/bacteria found in dead=better health-burial with tools, food, flowers etc. indicates caring for the dead=caring for each other in living=establishment of greater social bonds which help overcome hazards enabling better survival-shows that there was a belief in religion and the afterlife
310
What is hunter gatherer and division of labour and how did it affect social groups? What did method of survival require to be successful?
-the splitting of labours in a social group for the search of food, ie women gathering roots, fruits, veges etc. while men hunted-enabled groups to gather a widely varied diet (healthier), encouraged development of tools for hunting, transporting, preparing of food etc, led to more complex social structures encouraging larger groups to form therefore encouraged development of brain (divvying of labour times enable for better child education, increase cultural knowledge to pass on), sharing of foods (kinship), improve hunting (larger animals can be killed)/gathering meant more food (meat, veges etc)/resources (fur, sinew, ivory etc)=better chances of survival-co-operation and communication skills
311
Define domestication
Bringing plants and animals under human control
312
When and what was the first animal to be domesticated?
Dog 12,000 ya
313
When and what was the first plant to be domesticated?
Wheat 10,000 ya
314
Why were animals domesticated first?
Better suited to nomadic life as don't have to stay in one place for food, can move animals around
315
What are the advantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-animals can be more valuable alive for their fur, milk, eggs etc as a steady income-can be killed/harvested at optimum time=most nutritious food possible-herd of animals enable more meat to be 'stored' as live animals don't rot-when animals domesticated can be used to help physical labour, eg cattle=lifting, dogs=hunting-animals+crops source of wealth and can be traded-enables for the settling down of population to form towns/cities=specialised occupation to help farming (carpentry, medicine, tech etc), enabled new tech to develop (eg potter, smelting, maths etc.)-further selective breeding enabled for yeasts for bread, bees for honey, special breeds of cattle etc.
316
What are the disadvantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-certain breeds of animals/plants totally dependent on humans-decreased gene pool=more susceptible to diseases-monoculture practice leads to over reliance of one crop putting people at risk of famine in disease-permanent settlements lead to increased pollution-soil fertility decreases as land continuously farmed and nutrients extracted-settlements=increased population density=increased chances of disease spreads
317
What kind of region did agriculture originate from (generally and specifically)? Why?
-warm climates and easy access to water-Fertile crescent as the soil was moist from surrounding rivers and there was lots of sun as in the middle east
318
Hunter gathers are nomadic, why?
-In search of food and water-moving as seasons change-meet friends/relatives/tradeing-hunters follow animals
319
Though humans were nomadic, there is evidence that we built shelters and lived in them for a large part of the year, why?
when the environment was good (good weather, lots of water, plenty game etc.) would settle down temporarily and use it
320
Define biological evolution
any genetic change in a population that can be inherited
321
define cultural evolution
a change in the learned behaviour from one generation to the next
322
What is the evidence that language developed? What does it show possible language?
-discovery of a thyroid bone-used to hold the vocal chords in place in modern humans so evidence of it suggests early speaking capabilities
323
How has the freeing of hands aided the mental development of hominis?
-freeing of the hands allowed us to use them for more than physical support, ie crafting of tools, decoration, throwing etc.-this aided mental development as it encouraged higher intelligence to maximise the use of hands
324
What are the hominoids?
Chimps, gorillas, orang-utans and humans and thier ancestors
325
What are the hominids?
Chimps, gorillas, humans and their ancestors
326
What are hominins?
Humans and their ancestors
327
What are primates?
New world monkeys, old world monkeys, apes and humans
328
What are the closets relatives to primates?
Insectivores, eg mole, hedgehogs etc.
329
How much genetic code is shared between humans and chimpazines?
99%
330
What are many adaptations for primates focused on?
Tree dwelling
331
What are some adaptations primates have for tree dwelling?
Well developed collar bone (clavicle), 5 digit hands and feet, walking on the soles of feet (plantigrade foot posture), long nimble limbs
332
What are the 2 types of locomotion primates perform, define them
Arboreal locomotion - moving through the treesGround locomotion - moving on the ground
333
What are the 3 types of arboreal locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
Quadrupedalism - arms and legs are of equal length and importance, eg lemursModified quadrupedalism - Leaping an climbing, trunk is vertical before and after leaps+plus in resting eg tarsiersBrachiation - use of the arms to swing through trees and arms become longer, eg gibbons
334
What are the 3 types of ground locomotion? explain and give examples of species that do this
Terrestrial Quadrupedalism - using all four limbs all the time and all 4 limbs of similar length, eg baboonsKnuckle walking quadrupedalism- walking on all four limbs but on the front two limbs, on their knuckles and on the back two on the surface of their feet and front 2 limbs longer than back 2, eg chimpanzeeBipedalism - walking on two legs and the hands are not used for motion at all, legs longer than arms eg humans
335
What is a skeletal change to the CHEST to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Structure: HUMANS - rib cage flattened so centre of gravity is as little far forward as possible minimising tendency to fall forward APES - chest is flattened to the sides helping to lower centre of gravity
336
What are the skeletal change to the SPINE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Shape: HUMANS - S shaped curve to provide support and balance for upright position of torso and places weight directly above joint between spine and pelvis APES - C shaped spine promotes quadrupedal locomotion Neural spines: HUMANS - short neural spines (points bits on spine FYI) are short as little muscle required to hold head up APES - long neural spines as need for large surface for muscle attachment to support large head in horizontal position
337
What are the skeletal and muscular changes to the PELVIS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Shape: HUMANS - bowl shaped (broader+shorter) support upright torso by increased stability, weight transmitted directly to legs APES - longer+narrower for greater attachment of gluteus medius muscles=helps quadrupedalism movement and better support to torso organsMovement: HUMANS - gluteus maximus muscle located at rear of hips to help pull femur back when walking APES - smaller gluteus maximus that lies on outside of hip to raise legs sideways
338
What is the skeletal change to the LEGS to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Structure: HUMANS - legs are longer than arms as legs solely used for movement unlike arms, femur is longer=larger stride, thinner bone=lighter for more efficient movement (can be thinner as better weight distribution) APES - arms longer than legs as arms used more for weight distribution
339
What are the skeletal change to the KNEE to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Valgus angle: HUMANS - femur slants downwards and inwards+angled at knee joint, this puts the weight of the body directly underneath the spinal cord (increased valgus angle) = better balancing when walking APES - femur goes vertically from pelvis (no valgus angle)Lateral condyles: HUMANS - increased buttressing of the bone at the base of the femur preventing sideways movement of leg when walking APES - no increased buttressing
340
What are the skeletal change to the FEET to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for both quadrupedalism and bipedalism
Carrying angle: HUMANS - feet place directly under spine to prevent swaying when walking APES - feet on outside of pelvis Shape: HUMANS - there is a convex arch of foot that acts like a spring allowing for better transfer of weight down foot to big toe APES - no arch (flat footed)Big toe: HUMANS - aligned with other toes to provide final thrust against ground for forward propulsion APES - divergent (slightly opposed) to allow for grasping action
341
What are the skeletal change to the SKULL to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Shape: HUMANS - rounded for increased brain capacity APES - flatter as doesn't need larger brain capacityCranium capacity: HUMAN - enlarged skull (1350cc)(particularly frontal lobe) to accommodate for larger prefrontal cortex=better abstract+thinking capacity APE - smaller skull (500cc) as no need large prefrontal cortexStructure: HUMANS - weight concentrated in cranium+reduced attachment sites for chewing muscles (cooking makes it easier to chew) and facial muscles (no need for aggressive faces), weight concentrated in jaw for attachment of muscles (tough diet=more strenght)Foramen magnum: HUMANS - in centre of underside of skull so its is placed directly on top of spine=better balance APES - back of skull for horizontal position of headOccipital condyles (for attachment of first vertebrate): HUMANS - far forward helps bipedalism APES - far back helps quadrupedalism
342
What are the skeletal change to the JAW/ARRANGEMENT to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Size: HUMANS - small in size as teeth are smaller APE - large as teeth are largeTeeth arrangement: HUMANS - teeth are arranged in 'v' arch shape+no diastema APES - are arranged in 'u' with parallel sides+diastema
343
What are the skeletal change to the TEETH to enable bipedalism compared to apes? explain how it helps for human and ape behaviour/habits
Shape: HUMANS - smaller and more uniformed size suited for omnivorous diet+softer cooking APES - larger specialised teeth for grinding and chewing, large canines for defenceStructure: HUMANS - smaller molars+premolars and thinner enamel as less chewing/grinding=less wear and don't need to expend energy on making larger teeth/moving larger jaw=energy conserved APES - large molar+premolars and thick enamel as lots of chewing/grinding=more wear
344
What are the differences in BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Food: HUMANS - hunted/gathered then transported back to home/base and prepared APES - eaten where foundManipulation of objects: HUMANS - can perform fine careful movements APES - can only grab objects with rough/power grip
345
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed as alpha male has complete dominance over mates through ordered and respected social structure APES - advertised as males don't have complete dominance and social structure not rigid Sweat: HUMANS - produce a lot of sweat for efficient cooling APES - produce little sweat as little cooling requiredHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless for better cooling APES - very hair to keep warm in cool shade of forests
346
How has the structure of the HAND different in humans and apes? how does this help for their life style?
HUMAN - finger bones straight and thumb is long+fully opposable=very good grip on objects enabling complex tool making APES - finger bones curved and thumb short and not fully opposable=use of crude tools only and suits brachiation
347
How are humans generally adapted differently to apes?
Vertical centre of gravity - alignment of skull, trunk, legs and feetimproved bipedalism - valgus angle, arched feet, pelvic shape + vertical centre of gravityBrain structure - larger volume for larger prefrontal cortex etc. foramen magnum location, muscle attachment etc.Jaws/teeth - smaller teeth, more uniform size/shape and less muscle as food easier to chew [cooking] and less specialised
348
What systems do hominins have that enable better cooling? how does it help them with their life style?
-upright stance reduces sun exposure by 70%, lots of sweat glands to excrete lots of sweat and hairless to enable water to evaporate better and wind to cool down-due to active hunting style of hominis during the day, better cooling reduces the chance of heat stroke and can enable more activity during the heat of the day-being hairless also reduces the infestation of parasites and fleas on the skin reducing chances of infection/disease especially as humans began to make home bases which would increase the chance of diseases spreading through population
349
What are the benefits of bipedalism?
-Improves visibility by elevating the head higher-Reduces heat stroke by reducing the sun exposure to the body-Frees hands to enable for tool making, carrying objects etc.-more efficient transport for hunting purposes (run down prey until exhaustion) and better ability to travel (nomadic life style enables following of plenty or home territories where you travel from there)
350
What are disadvantages of bipedalism? what causes them?
-prone to back aches because of S-shaped spine and bowl shaped pelvis-slipped disc as weight of body carried by 2 limbs instead of 4-feet can become injured easily (strain, arches of feet collapse, distorted bones etc.) as weight of body only carried on 2 feet instead of 4-because of vertical position blood must be pumped down and then back up our legs via the varicose vein and require valves to work properly, when these fail they can lead to pain and complications-as the gut is no longer held in position from the spine by a broad ligament as in 4 legged animals, instead by abdominal muscles, intestines may bulge out leading to a hernia-with our new broad and short shaped pelvis the birth canal has been made smaller making child birth more difficult increasing chances of complication
351
What are the benefits of a bigger brain?
-enables for more brain cells-greater complexity of linkages between cells
352
How are human brains better than ape brains?
-brains bigger in volume (chimps=400cc, h.sapien=1350cc) enabling more brain cells (particularly in the cerebrum and frontal cortex)-more folding (40% more) increasing surface area of brain-Broca's area (speech production and language processing) and Wernicke's area (understanding and comprehension) developed in brain to enable speech
353
How much of a percent does the brain weigh and use in energy? what does this mean for sustaining a large brain? what cultural changes have allowed for the brain to be given an adequate supply of food?
-weighs 2% but consumes 20% of all energy-requires a lot of energy which means it has to be extremely beneficial to us if we are to sustain its high energy demands-we began to eat meat which is very energy dense and full of protein essential for our brain, we also cooked our food helping increase the absorption rate of our food increasing the amount of energy extracted and our abilities to hunt through the development of social interaction and better tools supplied a bigger quantity of food (particularly meat)
354
What are the differences between robust and gracile hominis
gracile=light and small in structurerobust=heavier and stronger structure
355
9
9
356
What is the selection pressure for bipedalism and how did this change the environment? how did this encourage bipedalism? describe
-climate change caused the environment to become drier-this drying of the environment caused the forests to recede and form savannah and being bipedal increased the efficiency of foraging-distance between tress increased as bush receded and being bipedal made it more efficient to travel between trees for shade/food-receding trees also increased sun exposure and being bipedal reduces sun exposure and reduced chance of heat stroke-receding trees reduced amount of food causing early hominis to venture to sea shore and bipedalism made it easier to wade and move over obstacles by sea shore
357
What are the differences in PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS between humans and apes? how does this help their lifestyle?
Ovulation: HUMANS - concealed for more monogamy APES - advertised as less bigamous Sweat: HUMANS - lots of sweat glands and can profusely sweat to keep cool in open savannah APES - few sweat glands and little sweat as in the cool bushHair: HUMANS - relatively hairless except on head for better heat management APES - hairy to keep cool under forest
358
What are 4 possible theories as to why humans became bipedal?
-climate change created large areas of savannah which forced early hominins to forage in open areas and bipedal movement was more efficient (better viewing, better movement etc.)-early hominins would have been walking partially bipedally along branches etc. by the time savannah created, larger greater distances between trees meant that bipedal movement was more efficient (dont need to go down onto four limbs then back up to two, just stay on two)-less trees=less shade and by being bipedal ~70% less body exposed to hot sun + breeze more efficiently cools down body enabling better heat management-early hominins during times of hunger venture to sea and bipedal motion enabled better movement via wading+walking over obstacles
359
What are the advantages of bipedalism?
-more efficient movement over savannah, sea shore, obstacles and between trees = conservation of energy+greater range over terrain-enables head to be elevated much higher to see further/over grass to see prey, predator etc.-reduces heat exposure and enables better cooling-frees the hand so that hands can be used for things such as carrying, crafting, defending etc.-enables for the reduction of the chest muscles enabling the development of better vocal muscles for communication
360
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and multi-regional hypothesis?
-Both support that there was interbreeding between different populations-However multi-regional suggests we evolved as H.sapien out of africa while hybridisation supports we evolved in africa
361
What are the 3 dispersal theories?
Multi-regional hypothesis, Out of Africa hypothesis, Hybridisation model
362
Describe what multi-regional hypothesis says is the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-states that H.erectus left africa ~2mya and went to europe and asia-H.erectus slowly evolved into H.sapien everywhere-gene flow maintained between populations ensuring general 'modern human blueprint' was adapted by whole species-gene flow was limited leading to slight anatomical differences which were retained per region (ie asian, european, malaysian etc.)-based on fossil evidence of H.erectus with asian, european etc. like features
363
Describe what the out of africa hypothesis suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-suggests that H.erectus left africa ~2mya-suggest that H.sapien was fully evolved in africa ~170,000 ya -H.sapien left africa ~40,000 ya replacing H.erectus and H.heidelbergensis populations-no gene flow between european, asian, african etc. populations-based on mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) which shows that we all had a common ancestor traced back to africa ~170,000 ya-based on Y chromosome evidence which shows mutations from ~44,000 ya in modern african gene that is possessed by all asian populations therefore shows they must have been in africa then left-nuclear DNA evidence shows african population have greatest genetic diversity showing how out of africa populations created from founder effect which causes unrepresentative population to leave
364
Describe what the hybridisation model suggest about the method of human migration and evolution and what evidence supports this
-Humans evolved in africa ~170,000 ya, left africa ~40,000 ya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor with denisovans ~1mya-H.sapien and neanderthal shared common ancestor ~500,000 ya-Neanderthal and denisovans shared common ancestor ~200,000 ya-H.sapien interbred with other human populations in europe and asia (eg neanderthals and denisovans)-Proof as all NON-AFRICAN populations have 1-4% neanderthal DNA, shows that there was interbreeding in Middle East ~80,000 ya then populations split into europe+asia with new DNA-modern day Melanesians contain 4-6% denisovans DNA meaning interbreeding occured in siberia on route to melanesia
365
What are some similarities and differences between the hybridisation model and out of africa hypothesis?
-both suggest H.sapien evolved in africa ~170,000 ya and left ~40,000 ya-however hybridisation suggest interbreeding with established population while out of africa suggests no interbreeding/gene flow
366
The taste gene PTC is found in all humans and mutated around 100,000 years ago, however in african populations there are 7 different alleles but in non-african populations only 2 are found, what theory/s of dispersion supports this and why?
-supports the hybridisation and out-of-africa model-reduced genetic variation shown in non-african populations as there are less alleles, shows founder group left africa with unrepresentative gene pool or else all 7 alleles would be found in other populations disproves multiregional theory
367
What evidence is there to suggest that humans and neanderthals interbred?
-DNA evidence suggests 1-4% of nuclear DNA from non-african populations is neanderthal suggesting interbreeding-archaeological evidence has found bones of H.sapien with distinct neanderthal features
368
When and where did this neanderthal DNA enter our H.sapien lineage?
50,000 ya when H.sapien left africa through the middle east
369
What, where and when did Denisovan live?
-it is a species of hominis that lived in south east asia and lived from 200,000-40,000 ya
370
From the denisovan DNA found there appears to be very little genetic diversity (humans have 33% more), what does this tell us?
the denisovan population never got very big and therefore there was very little genetic diversity
371
What are some distinguishing features between denisovan, neanderthal and H.sapien?
-Denisovan and neanderthal were robust in their build (thicker bones, shorter and stockier, flaring hips, larger joint surfaces H.sapien gracile-Neanderthal had large flaring noses, humans are smaller-Neanderthal had larger brains (1450cc) than H.sapien (1350cc)
372
When were there food shortages and what caused them?
1.7 mya, 500,000 ya and 60,000 yacaused by the cooling and drying of the environment
373
What did the food shortages do to the hominin populations?
It drove them out to seek food elsewhere
374
What routes did hominins use leaving africa?
they followed the coastline east through to polynesia and into central asia, also went north into europe
375
What are the 5 types of tool cultures?
Oldowan tool culture, acheulian tool culture, mousterian tool culture, upper palaeolithic tool culture and neolithic tool culture
376
Describe the oldowan tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-roughly flaked to one side to create cutting edge, made of basalt, quartz or chert-made bu a single blow of one rock aganist another-multipurpose tools for cutting meat, skin and wood, scrapping hide, used as hammers and diggers-homo habilis created them
377
What is something significant about H.habilis using crystalline stones (eg basalt, quartz and chert) as tools?
It showed first evidence of when were able to identify differences between rocks, shows more abstract thinking due to better recognition of details such as texture, colour, weight etc.
378
Describe the acheulian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-tear drop shape with sharp edges around it and a point, still use the choppers of the oldowan culture but less common-chipping stone from both sides with another rock-hand axes, picks and cleavers-homo erectus
379
What are some innovations in the design of the acheulian tools?
-chipping from both sides created a symmetrical shape (not one sided like oldowan, shows crafting)-shaped tools into recognisable and repeatable shapes (not random like oldowan, shows crafting)-these tools were created with variation to better suit a purpose (specialisation is new concept=more complex technology)
380
Describe the mousterian tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more crafted and further specialised than acheulian tools with many variations for many jobs, often made of flint, used tools to create tools, combined with other components (eg spears shaft+spearhead=spear)-shaped stone into preliminary shape (rounded smooth surface) then striking off areas to create edges/points-spears, crafting wood, tools to make tools-Neanderthal
381
What are some important aspects in the development of mousterian tools?
-became a standardised tool making procedure-tools allowed for future adjustment (eg reshaping blade, resharpening etc.)-less use of large multipurpose tools, instead specialised tools -combination of tools (eg shaft+head=spear) enable specialisation keystone for specialised tool creating labour=enabling of development of wealth-tools for preparation of hides for clothing, shoes, bedding, shelter, bags etc. show social organisation=stability (improvement on primitive hominins)
382
Describe the upper palaeolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-more specialised tools, small fine tools developed, new materials used-varied greatly, tool making process not longer set in stone but per tool and material-needles, spears, hooks, arrow heads, spear throwers, jewellery, figurines-Homo sapien (~90,000-12,000 ya)
383
What does the creating of the new tools in palaeolithic culture indicate about their technological and social advancements?
-advances in clothing, shelter, utensils, ornaments, medicine, nutrition and rituals-social status now important and shown through outward physical manifestation (eg jewellery) = clear hierarchy/wealth + religion -symbolism lead to the development of pictures/counting tallies used to signify historical record, calendar time which all lead to WRITTEN LANGUAGE
384
How did the creating of tools then increased our efficiency at hunting change our eating habits?
-Better tools enable for better hunting abilities = better diets-also led to over hunting and extinction of species, this sped up process of development of agriculture
385
Describe the neolithic tool cultures, how they made them, uses for their tools, and what species created them?
-development of tools for agricultural uses, greater use of symbolism-varies greatly from tool to tool but new technique of pressure flaking was used to give polished look-scythes, scrapers, plows etc-H.sapien (6,000 ya - now)
386
What is the first species to control fire?
H.erectus
387
What evidence is there to suggest controlling of fire?
-Hearth formed (eg ring of stones around charcoal)-charcoal sites + charred bones found
388
What are some advantages of using fire?
-provided warmth = ability to live in colder climates (eg europe+asia during ice age)-provides light = enable groups to operate for longer during day to do activities, eg grooming/chatting/dancing etc. (social bonding), tool making-protection = keeps animals away as they don't like fire-health = cooking food kills bacteria and parasites-tool making = hardens spear to make them last longer
389
What are some disadvantage of using fire?
-injury = fire is hot and can burn-environmental damage = fires can get out of control and burn land-attract competition = fire + smoke is bright so is easily visible at day/night for other hominis-work required = to start fire/gather resources labour intensive
390
What is the most important use of fire in our development as humans? why?
-cooking-kills parasites/bacteria reducing chances of getting sick = reduced death rates-breaks down proteins and fats making it easier to digest = more nutritionally available = better brain development
391
What was the first hominin species to be bipedal and when did it live? what would have made it bipedal? what are some characteristics of it?
-Australopithecus afarensis, 3.9-2.4 mya-need to see over savannah grass to spot predators, to reduce sun exposure and freeing of the hands for function (carrying etc.)-brain size=400-500cc, height=1.1-1.5m (sexual dimorphism) ape like face (low forehead, bony brow, flat nose, no chin), human like teeth (small canines + better suited for omnivorous diet), human/ape shaped jaw, long arms relative to legs, arched foot and big toe, valgus angle increased and gracile structure
392
Describe the features of australopithecus robustus and when it lived
-2.2-1.5 mya-brains size=530cc, very thick jaw, large pre/molars, small canines+incisors (mainly herbivorous), sagittal crest for attachment of extra muscles, robust structure, bipedal
393
What was the first homo species and when did it live? describe it and what it was the first species to do
-homo habilis, 2.4-1.5mya-had chin, brain size=500-800cc, change in pelvis structure allowed for more upright stance, more omnivorous teeth structure (large incisor and molars), gracile structure-first species to make tools
394
A.robust and its line died out while H.habilis lead onto many other homo species to us today. What enabled H.habilis to excel in its environment compared to A.robust?
H.habilis was adaptable while A.robust was to specialised to its specific environment. This meant that as the enviro changed, H.habilis could change by creating tools for the purpose and adapting its died (omnivorous) while A.robust did not have the abstract thinking to create tools and had a limited diet (herbivore)
395
What are the 8 general trend in characteristics as the homo genus evolved?
-increased size+complexity of the brain (especially frontal lobe)-development of more advanced language-further development of s-shaped curve in spine-legs continue to become longer proportional to arms-teeth become smaller+less enamel-smaller jaw and more defined chin-more rounded cranium with bulging forehead-development of group living and culture/tool making
396
How did a more complex thought process directly benefit the lives of early hominis (eg H.habilis)
-allowed for basic tool making enabling better access to nutrients from animals (eg bone marrow)-better organisation of hunting enabling more successful hunts-better ability to find other foods not necessarily part of the norm
397
How were H.neanderthal and H.sapien adapted differently?
-H.sapien adapted to the hot climate of africa (tall, thin and dark skinned)-H.neanderthal adapted perfectly to cold ice age european environment (short, stocky, broad noses, short limbed, white)
398
How did the technology of H.sapien change over the same period as H.neanderthal?
-H.neanderthal had very little change in tool making and tools using the same scraper, hand axes, spears etc. over 250,000 years-H.sapien changed as needs were required using different materials, making different tools etc.
399
How were the social groups of H.sapien and H.neanderthal different?
-H.sapien lived in large social groups and made regular contact with other social groups-H.neanderthal lived in small groups of 7-25 and made little or no contact with other groups
400
How did the adaptations, change in tool cultures and social strustures of H.sapien and H.neanderthal lead to H.sapien to be the last homo genus?
-As environment changed, H.neanderthal being too specialised could not adapt to new environment as their tool culture didn't change, their diets were restricted to what they knew and they didn't share ideas with other groups-H.sapien were adaptable and created tools as they were needed meaning they could alter the environment as they needed+sharing of ideas-Because both species were competing for the same resources, H.sapien was better adapted to the change, H.neanderthal didn't change and continue to follow large game species in forests into the valleys leading to their demise as H.sapien spread and took over europe
401
When did homo sapien begin to start wearing clothes? how earlier had we lost our fur?
-170,000 ya-830,000 ya (lost fur 1mya)
402
What are 2 possible reasons as to why we lost our fur?
-To get rid of the parasites that infested our fur-emerging from the cool forests to hot savannah, fur caused overheating therefore shed it to spend more time in sun
403
What is a possible trigger of the manufacturing of clothing?
The coldest ice age ever ~180,000 ya
404
How long have humans been doing body paint and wearing animals skins (not crafted into clothing)?
Entire human history
405
When did ornamentation begin to show up?
75,000 ya
406
When and what did we create needles from? how did this help our clothe making abilities?
-35,000 ya from bone-enable the creating of more sophisticated tailoring of clothing and multi layering
407
How did neanderthal clothing differ to homo sapien clothing?
Homo sapien more sophisticated (tailored, multilayered, stitched etc), neanderthal layered on animal skins with no tailoring
408
What evidence is there that neanderthals could have worn clothing?
-stone awls/borers used to punch holes in leather/wood for cloth making-wear marks on incisor teeth similar to Inuit women who chewed mens leather boots before hunting
409
How did clothing abilities affect homo sapien and neanderthals future survival?
-unsophicated clothing couldn't keep neanderthal sufficently warm during cold snaps of 40-35,000 ya contributing to dwindling population-homo sapien's sophicated clothing kept them warmer during cold snaps + allowed them to migrate to colder places therefore take over more areas
410
What was (and are) the purposes of decoration such as pierced mammoth ivory beads sewn onto clothing? why?
-sign of wealth-it takes many hours to construct their jewellery indicating high level of wealth by availability of free time away from hunting
411
What were the early forms of communication?
Facial expressions, body language and gestures followed by primitive noises (eg grunts and screeches)
412
What are the 2 regions of the brain associated with language?
Broca's and Wernicke's area
413
What species is believed to be the first to have complex communication (speaking)? What indicates this?
-Homo erectus-increasing standardisation of tool making
414
What species is most associated with the development of art? what kind of art did they produce?
-Homo sapien-cave paintings of animals (eg horses, deer, oxen and mammoth), bone and ivory carving (15-10,000 ya FYI)
415
What could have been a cause and function of ancient artwork?
-developed as a humans got more free time-Method of communication traditions and values of tribe and for visual aesthetics + enables cultural info to be shared down generations
416
What species showed the first signs of spirituality? How did they show this? what does it show?
-Neanderthal-burying the dead and decoration grave with flowers, commonly aligned in east-west position, legs curled up, head resting on stone, bodies decorated with red ochre and black MgO-possible indicates a form of religion
417
What was the significance of burying individuals?
-removed diseases/bacteria found in dead=better health-burial with tools, food, flowers etc. indicates caring for the dead=caring for each other in living=establishment of greater social bonds which help overcome hazards enabling better survival-shows that there was a belief in religion and the afterlife
418
What is hunter gatherer and division of labour and how did it affect social groups? What did method of survival require to be successful?
-the splitting of labours in a social group for the search of food, ie women gathering roots, fruits, veges etc. while men hunted-enabled groups to gather a widely varied diet (healthier), encouraged development of tools for hunting, transporting, preparing of food etc, led to more complex social structures encouraging larger groups to form therefore encouraged development of brain (divvying of labour times enable for better child education, increase cultural knowledge to pass on), sharing of foods (kinship), improve hunting (larger animals can be killed)/gathering meant more food (meat, veges etc)/resources (fur, sinew, ivory etc)=better chances of survival-co-operation and communication skills
419
Define domestication
Bringing plants and animals under human control
420
When and what was the first animal to be domesticated?
Dog 12,000 ya
421
When and what was the first plant to be domesticated?
Wheat 10,000 ya
422
Why were animals domesticated first?
Better suited to nomadic life as don't have to stay in one place for food, can move animals around
423
What are the advantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-animals can be more valuable alive for their fur, milk, eggs etc as a steady income-can be killed/harvested at optimum time=most nutritious food possible-herd of animals enable more meat to be 'stored' as live animals don't rot-when animals domesticated can be used to help physical labour, eg cattle=lifting, dogs=hunting-animals+crops source of wealth and can be traded-enables for the settling down of population to form towns/cities=specialised occupation to help farming (carpentry, medicine, tech etc), enabled new tech to develop (eg potter, smelting, maths etc.)-further selective breeding enabled for yeasts for bread, bees for honey, special breeds of cattle etc.
424
What are the disadvantages of domestication of animals and plants?
-certain breeds of animals/plants totally dependent on humans-decreased gene pool=more susceptible to diseases-monoculture practice leads to over reliance of one crop putting people at risk of famine in disease-permanent settlements lead to increased pollution-soil fertility decreases as land continuously farmed and nutrients extracted-settlements=increased population density=increased chances of disease spreads
425
What kind of region did agriculture originate from (generally and specifically)? Why?
-warm climates and easy access to water-Fertile crescent as the soil was moist from surrounding rivers and there was lots of sun as in the middle east
426
Hunter gathers are nomadic, why?
-In search of food and water-moving as seasons change-meet friends/relatives/tradeing-hunters follow animals
427
Though humans were nomadic, there is evidence that we built shelters and lived in them for a large part of the year, why?
when the environment was good (good weather, lots of water, plenty game etc.) would settle down temporarily and use it
428
Define biological evolution
any genetic change in a population that can be inherited
429
define cultural evolution
a change in the learned behaviour from one generation to the next
430
What is the evidence that language developed? What does it show possible language?
-discovery of a thyroid bone-used to hold the vocal chords in place in modern humans so evidence of it suggests early speaking capabilities
431
How has the freeing of hands aided the mental development of hominis?
-freeing of the hands allowed us to use them for more than physical support, ie crafting of tools, decoration, throwing etc.-this aided mental development as it encouraged higher intelligence to maximise the use of hands
