Basic Concepts of Anatomy

Question 1

Horizontal plane (transverse or cross-section)

Answer 1

Plane parallel to the floor with the body in the anatomical position

Structures on the right side of the body will be on the left side of the sectional image

Question 2

Sagittal plane

Answer 2

Perpendicular to the horizontal plane, to the left or the right

Mid-sagittal plane splits the body into equal right and left halves

Question 3

Coronal plane

Answer 3

Right angles to the sagittal plane.

Exposes the body from right to left side of the body

Question 4

Oblique plane

Answer 4

Any plane that’s not coronal, transverse, or sagittal

Question 5

Medial/lateral

Answer 5

Relative to the mid-sagittal plane

Medial is towards the body, lateral is away from body

Question 6

Superior/inferior

Answer 6

Position along the vertical axis

Superior: towards the head

Inferior: towards the feet/tail

Question 7

Cranial/caudal

Answer 7

Same as superior/inferior

Used in embryology

Question 8

Ventral/dorsal

Answer 8

Same as anterior/posterior

Question 9

Anterior/posterior

Answer 9

Anterior: front of body
Posterior: back of the body

Question 10

Proximal/distal

Answer 10

Relative to the origin of a structure

Proximal: closet
Distal: furtherest

Question 11

Flexion

Answer 11

Decreasing the angle between two body parts.

Ex: bringing arm up towards upper body, bended st elbow

Question 12

Extensión

Answer 12

Increasing the angle between two body parts or an angel at a joint

Ex: extending arms from up and bended at elbow, straight down towards anatomical position

Question 13

Abduction

Answer 13

Moving a body part away from the midline of the body

Question 14

Adduction

Answer 14

Moving body part towards the midline of the body or defined midline of an extremity

Question 15

Rotation

Answer 15

Movement around an axis

Medial rotation is towards the body

Lateral rotation is away from body

Question 16

Movements of trunk and head

Answer 16

Flexión: upper body bends anteriorly (like bending down to touch one’s toes)

Extension: bending the trunk backwards (like you’re about to do a backbend

Lateral flexion: bending trunk away from the midline of body (like you’re using your left hand to touch your left ankle while standing up straight)

Question 17

Movements of pictorial girdle

Answer 17

scapula and clavicle always move in coordinated fashion

Retraction: moving medial border of scapula away from the vertebra (bringing bended elbow towards back

protraction: moving the medial border of the scapula away from the vertebra (extending arm arm outwards away from back, body)

Elevation: moving the superior border of the scapula superiorly (towards the head)

Depression: moving the superior border of the scapula inferiorly

Question 18

Movements of the arm

Answer 18

Flexion-Extension

abduction-adduction

medial-lateral rotation

circumduction: imagine moving arm in big circle to the side of your body, doing abduction, flexion, extension, and adduction in one movement

Question 19

Movements of the forearm

Answer 19

flexion-extension

pronation-supination: complex movement occurring at the elbow and at the distal end of the radius and ulna

Pronation: palm down
suprination: palm up ( think eating soup)

Question 20

Movements of hand

Answer 20

Flexion- extension

abduction- adduction

Question 21

Movements of the fingers

Answer 21

flexion-extension

abduction: spreading fingers apart
adduction: bringing the fingers together

Question 22

Movements of thumb

Answer 22

extension-flexion

abduction: swinging thumb out of the plane of the palm
adduction: swinging thumb into the plane of the palm
opposition: swinging the thumb from anatomical position across the palm touching the palm of the fingers

Question 23

Movements at the hip joint

Answer 23

ball and socket joint like shoulder so movements are similar, but more stable.

flexion: swings the thigh anteriorly
extension: swings the thigh posteriorly

abduction:swings the thigh laterally away from the body
(when foot is planted, abduction pulls the pelvic bone down on that side and up on the opposite side. Motion maintains a straight erect truck posture during gait or when balancing on one foot.)

adduction: returns thigh back into anatomical position

Question 24

Movements of the hip joint

Answer 24

Rotation around the long axis of the femur

internal rotation = medial rotation

external rotation = lateral rotation

Question 25

Movements at the knee

Answer 25

knee is a simple hinge joint flexion: moves leg posteriorly in relation to the thigh extension: moves the leg anteriorly Medial and lateral rotation

Question 26

Movement at the ankle

Answer 26

ankle is the hinge joint between the distal tibia and the talus. plantarflexion: is true flexion, occurs when the ankle is pointed down from the anatomical position dorsiflexion: is true extension, occurs when the foot is pointed up from the anatomical position

Question 27

Movements within the foot

Answer 27

inversion: bottom of foot angles toward the midline of the body eversion: bottom of the foot angles away from the body supination: a combined plantar flexion, inversion, and adduction pronation: a combined dorsiflexion, eversion, and abduction

Question 28

Movements of the toes

Answer 28

flexion (curing toes under) and extension Abduction and adduction

Question 29

The skeleton- Axial skeleton

Answer 29

vertebral column: the midline support of the body thoracic cage: protection of the heart and lungs and forms a study chamber for respiration skull: solid protection of the brain and sensory organs and moveable jaw for mastication and phonation

Question 30

The skeleton- appendicular skeleton

Answer 30

pectoral and pelvic girdles connecting the limbs to the axial skeleton long bones of limbs for locomotion

Question 31

Bone structure

Answer 31

layers of typical bone (outer to inner): 1) periosteum: fibrous connective tissue covering that is highly innervated 2) compact bone: dense, strong outer layer 3) spongy bone: internal part with lots of spaces to lighten the bone 4) medullary (marrow) cavity: site of blood cell formation composition: 60-70% mineral (calcium phosphate) 30-40% collagen, an elastic protein

Question 32

synovial joints

Answer 32

synovial joints: have a set of structural elements that allow smooth movement between the bones 4 structures: 1) articular cartilage 2) fibrous capsule 3) fluid-filled joint cavity 4) synovial membrane solid joints: simple connective tissue that allow little movement

Question 33

fibrous capsule

Answer 33

fibrous capsule: completely envelopes the joint, is strengthened by thickenings called capsular ligaments. innervation of the capsule is important in controlling movement

Question 34

articular cartilage

Answer 34

cartilage placed on the end of the bones in moveable joints. ends of bones are capped with hyaline cartilage (makes up articular cartilage) Articular cartilages are devoid of perichondrium and the outer layer is acellular

Question 35

Joint cavity

Answer 35

potential space enclosed by the articular capsule cavity is filled with synovial fluid which lubricates the joint provides microenvironment that supplies nutrients to the articular cartilage

Question 36

synovial membrane

Answer 36

membrane lines the fibrous capsule and is reflected over the bones and ligaments but not onto the articular cartilage. secretes the synovial fluid that acts as a lubricant (think oil for door hinge)

Question 37

ligaments

Answer 37

bands of strong connective tissue, connecting bone to bone. limit joint movement and prevent dislocation intrinsic: thickenings of the joint capsule extrinsic: lie outside or inside the joint capsule

Question 38

meniscus, labrum, and articular disc

Answer 38

fibrocartilage additions that provide a modified bearing surface for the bones

Question 39

bursae and synovial sheaths

Answer 39

sacs of synovial membrane providing a lubicated surface between tenons, ligaments and bones

Question 40

hinge joints

Answer 40

flexion and extension ex: elbow, knee joints, fingers

Question 41

plane joint

Answer 41

two flat surfaces sliding against each other | ex: shoulder/clavicle

Question 42

saddle joint

Answer 42

movement in to plans. same kinds of movements of condyloid joints

Question 43

pivot joint

Answer 43

allows spinning around longitudinal axis. rotational movements

Question 44

ball and socket joint

Answer 44

rotation, flex, extend, abduct and adduct

Question 45

condyloid joint

Answer 45

allows movement in two planes. flex/extension, abduction and adduction

Question 46

Suture

Answer 46

(fibrous joint) only found in skull. connects different bones skull together.

Question 47

interosseous membrane

Answer 47

(fibrous joint) found in the forearm and in the leg. membrane acts in force distribution between parallel long bones

Question 48

cartilagenous joints

Answer 48

primary cartilagenous joint: cartilage between the bones is simply a part of the cartilaginous bone model that does not ossify secondary cartilagenous joint: skeletal elements are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage with fibrocartilage between them Degenerated hernia disk in vertebrae is an example of this joint

Question 49

muscle

Answer 49

skeletal muscle: striated muscle which moves bones and other structures. under voluntary control smooth muscle: non striated mulled contracting the walls of blood vessels and hollow organs. under involuntary control by the autonomic nervous system cardiac muscle: muscle of the heart, controlled by the autonomic nervous system

Question 50

muscle structure:

Answer 50

muscle fibers are grouped into fascicles, which are surrounded by a perimysium layer of connective tissue. whole muscle is wrapped in an epimysium layer tendons: connect tp the periosteum or to deeper bone by specialized fibers. transfer muscle energy to the skeleton but also can act as energy storing springs

Question 51

central nervous system

Answer 51

brain and spine cord; central processing unit

Question 52

peripheral nervous system

Answer 52

input/output connections from the CNS to the rest of the body

Question 53

how to tell difference in arteries and veins

Answer 53

arteries deal with high blood pressure - thick walled veins deal with low pressure - thin walled but carry same volume as arteries. veins are numerous and and of larger diameter venous valves assist one-way valves that allow blood flow toward the heart

Question 54

lymphatics

Answer 54

drain excess fluid from intercellular space very important in spread of infection and cancer

Question 55

types of bones

Answer 55

Long bones: long shaft with articulations at each end ex: humerus and femur Irregular bones: complex shapes that do not fit another category ex: vertebrae and some skull bones flat bones: dominated by large thin flat areas ex: skull bones, scapula, and ribs short bones: small with irregular shape and articular surfaces ex: carpals and tarsals sesamoid bones: develop within tendons ex: patella

Question 56

day 10-11

Answer 56

- lacunae anastomose with maternal capillaries to form blood-filled sinusoids - extraembryonic reticulum forms between Heuser's membrane and the cytotrophoblast (acellular ECM) - Heuser's membrane becomes the primary yolk sac and the blastocoel changes its name to yolk sac cavity

Question 57

formation of the chorion

Answer 57

- extraembryonic mesoderm is formed from the hypoblast layer and migrates to fill the extra embryonic reticulum - chorionic cavity develops in the extraembryonic mesoderm - fetal placenta forms from the chorion - yolk sac is now a two layered structure: extraembryonic mesoderm and the original lining cells of heuser's membrane

Question 58

formation of the secondary yolk sac

Answer 58

-additional cells from the hypoblast migrate and dispose the primary yolk sac, forming the secondary (definitive) yolk sac (site of the initial hematopoiesis and primordial germ cell development

Question 59

gastrulation

Answer 59

- bilaminar disk defines the dorsal and ventral sides of the embryo only. - create body consisting of a gastrointestinal tube surrounded by a body wall tube with a space between these two tubes - create body that has a distinct head and tail as well as front and back and left and right

Question 60

gastrulation

Answer 60

1) converts the bilaminar disk to a trilaminar disk with three distinct layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm 2) establishes the crainocaudal - defines head and tail 3) establishes bilateral symmetry and a left-right directionality which shows up later as specific left-right asymmetries 4) builds populations of cells in specific locations so they can interact by induction

Question 61

formation of the promotive streak

Answer 61

- epiblast form the primitive streak - parts of the primitive streak: 1) primitive node 2) primitive groove 3) primitive pit -formation of the primitive streak = establishment of dorsal-ventral, cranial-caudal, and right-left axes of the body

Question 62

mesenchyme

Answer 62

- undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue - usually mesodermal cell but can also be ectomesenchyme - migrates before differentiating - epiblast transforms into mesenchyme

Question 63

mesenchyme

Answer 63

-undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue | -

Question 64

resulting cell types from gastrulation

Answer 64

epiblast leads to: 1) primordial germ cells -> yolk sac 2) hematopoietic stem cells -> yolk sac 3) extraembryonic mesoderm -> chorion, amnion, and yolk sac

Question 65

What comes from the germ layers?

Answer 65

ectoderm: nervous system and outer covering of the body mesoderm: musculoskeletal, vascular, and some organ systems endoderm: lining of gut tube and all derivatives

Question 66

paths of gastrulating cells

Answer 66

1) early streak stage: gut endoderm forms from the cranial end of the primitive streak. the earliest mesoderm, from the primitive node region forms the prechordal plate 2) mid streak stage: cardiogenic mesoderm migrates to the head. extraembryonic mesoderm exits the embryo proper 3) late streak stage: mesodermal fields for notochord, paraxial mesoderm, intermediate mesoderm and lateral plate are defined

Question 67

formation of the prechordal plate and notochord

Answer 67

- mesoderm grows down and cranial from the primitive pit - prechordal plate is behind buccopharyngeal membrane and is very important in organizing head development - notochordal process develops behind the prechordal plate- this is a hollow tube, as the streak moves caudally, the notochord lengthens

Question 68

functions of the notochord

Answer 68

- important inducer of the spinal cord, spinal nerve, and vertebral column - most notochord later regresses, but a part remains in the nucleus pulpous of the intervertebral disk

Question 69

fate of the laterally migrating mesoderm

Answer 69

paraxial mesoderm -> somites -> axial Skelton, musculature intermediate mesoderm -> urinary and reproductive systems; adrenal gland lateral plate mesoderm -> connective tissues; layers of gut wall and body cavity, limbs

Question 70

fate of ectoderm

Answer 70

1) surface ectoderm -> skin placodal ectoderm is a specialized surface ectoderm -> cranial nerve sensory neurons, inner ear and lens 2) ectoderm over the prechordal plate and notochord thickens to become the neural plate -> neural tube -> CNS 3) the edge of the neural plate becomes the neural crest -> PNS