BDS1 Semester 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the definition of life in terms of physiological functions? (name 8)
A
- Homeostasis
- Organization (-complexity)
- Metabolism (-obtain and transform energy for growth, reproduction and homeostasis)
- Growth (-accumulation of mass; waste removal)
- Adaptation (-over time/generations)
- Response to stimuli (-often via movement; learning)
- Reproduction
- One more to add to the list… time-limited (senescence and death)
2
Q
What are the most commonly found atoms that are required for life?(name 6)
A
Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur
3
Q
Name in order the 6 levels of living functions.
A
- Cell
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organism
- Community
- Population
4
Q
Define a functional group.
A
It is a site of chemical reactivity in a molecule.
5
Q
Give one example of a functional group.
A
Amines in proteins
6
Q
What is a carbonyl group?
A
Within biology, a carbonyl group within a molecule allows it to undergo the many reactions necessary to maintain life. Many common biological molecules contain a carbonyl group, which allows the cell the ability to create new molecules and modify the molecule with a number of other functional groups.
7
Q
Example of a carbonyl group.
A
Aldehyde CH3CHO
8
Q
What do electrophiles love to associate with?
A
Electrons
9
Q
What ions do electrophiles involve?
A
H+ and Fe3+
10
Q
What do nucleophiles love to associate with?
A
Nuclei
11
Q
What are examples of nucleophiles?
A
NH3 and OH-
12
Q
How does carboxylic acids form?
A
When one of the members on a carbonyl group is OH group, the compound is a carboxylic acids with the generic formula RCO2H
13
Q
Are fatty acids considered carboxylic acids?
A
yes
14
Q
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
A
Saturated fats do not have a carbon-carbon double bond in them.
15
Q
What compounds are considered dicarboxylic acids?
A
Compounds that contain two CO2H functional groups are known as dicarboxylic acids
16
Q
What compounds are considered tricarboxylic acids?
A
Compounds that contain three CO2H functional groups are known as tricarboxylic acids
17
Q
What does reaction between a carboxylic acid and alcohols forms?
A
Ester
18
Q
What can ester be used for?
A
Anything from perfumery to local anaesthetics
19
Q
What are amides?
A
An amide is a functional group containing a carbonyl group linked to a nitrogen atom or any compound containing the amide functional group. Amides are derived from carboxylic acid and an amine. Amide is also the name for the inorganic anion NH2.
20
Q
What are amines?
A
Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group (these may respectively be called alkylamines and arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be called alkylarylamines).
21
Q
What are cyclic amides called?
A
Lactams
22
Q
What is a fornix?
A
The fornix is the area where the mucosa of our lips/cheeks and mucosa covering the bone surrounding our tooth roots meet.
23
Q
What is the oral cavity divided into?
A
The vestibule and the oral cavity proper
24
Q
What is buccal side?
A
Side that is closer to the lips for pre-molars and molars.
25
What does FDI stand for?
Federtion dentale internationale
26
What are the adult teeth called?
Permanent dentition
27
What are the baby teeth called?
Deciduous dentition
28
How many teeth does and adult have
28 (7 in each quadrant) plus 1, 2, 3 or 4 wisdom teeth (3rd molars)
29
What does occlusal mean?
It's the surface on the top of molars and pre-molar teeth
30
What does incisal mean?
it's the surface on the tops of incisors and canines
31
What does labial mean?
Surface closest to the cheeks for incisors and canines
32
What does lingual mean?
Surface closest to the tongue
33
What does mesial mean?
Surface that is facing the imaginary midline in the quadrants
34
What does distal mean?
Surface that is facing away from the midline
35
What is a groove?
a groove is a shallow linear depression
36
What is a groove?
a groove is a shallow linear depression seen on the first premolar for example
37
What is a pit?
A pit is a small pinpoint depression seen for example on the first molar
38
What is a ridge?
A linear elavation
39
What is a fossa?
A rounder or angular depression seen on the second pre-molar for example
40
What is the name of the bone that holds teeth together?
Alveolus
41
What is a frenum?
a small fold or ridge of tissue which supports or checks the motion of the part to which it is attached, in particular a fold of skin beneath the tongue, or between the lip and the gum.
42
What is a glucan?
a polysaccharide consisting of glucose units.
43
What are monosaccharides?
any of the class of sugars (e.g. glucose) that cannot be hydrolysed to give a simpler sugar.
44
What are disaccharides?
any of a class of sugars whose molecules contain two monosaccharide residues.
45
What are oligosaccharides?
a carbohydrate whose molecules are composed of a relatively small number of monosaccharide units
46
What are polysaccharides?
a carbohydrate (e.g. starch, cellulose, or glycogen) whose molecules consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together.
47
How are amino sugars formed?
OH is replaced with an amino group
48
How are deoxysugars formed?
OH group replaced at C6 with H
49
How are acid sugars formed?
The sugar acids are obtained when a carbonyl group or a hydroxyl group is oxidized to a carboxylic acid group
50
What does hydrolysed mean?
It means that water was used to break down the chemical bond
51
What are homopolysaccharides?
They are polysaccharides that contain a single monosaccharide unit
52
What are heteropolysaccharides?
They are polysaccharides that contain two or more monosaccharides
53
What is cellulose?
It is a fibrous water insoluble linear unbranched homo-polysaccharide main constituent of wood and cotton
54
What are the four classes of teeth?
Incisor, canine, premolar and molar
55
What do we call the upper jaw?
Maxilla (or maxillary jaw)
56
What do we call the lower jaw?
Mandibule (or mandibular jaw)
57
What is an important aspect of tooth identification?
Multiple features of the tooth need to be considered, no single feature is definitive
58
What are the key features of permanent incisors? (name 3)
Trapezoidal view from labial side, triangular from proximal, single root
59
What is the main difference between the central and lateral maxillary incisors?
Central is usually larger and longer then the lateral
60
What it the difference between the central and lateral mandibular incisors?
Central is usually smaller and more like a trapezium while lateral is larger and has aslight slunt
61
What are the distinctive properties of maxillary canines?
Bell shaped from labial side and M shaped cingulum with a triangular lingual ridge
62
What are the features of the mandibular canines?
The miseal surface if flat and the cingulum and marginal ridges are not not as distinct
63
What are the features of the first upper premolars? (name 5)
Buccal cusp peak, a central grove, distolingual surface is more defined (think a defined jawline), triangular fossa situated on towards the distal side, mesial developmental depression (also known as canine fossa)
64
What are the features of second upper premolar? (Name 3)
The shape is sually smaller and less triangular looking from the buccal side then first premolar, many supplemental grooves, no mesial developmental depression
65
What is a possible alternation relating to the roots of upper first and second pre-molars?
They may have 2 roots
66
What are the features of first and second mandibular molars? (name 3)
Rectangular occlusal outline, 4-5 cusps with paletal cusps being the tallest, two roots
67
What are the features of first upper molars?
Larger then second upper molars, carabelli trait sometimes, 4 cusps, long central depression
68
What are the features of second upper molars?
Smaller then the first upper molars, Hot cross bun shape, less sharp cusps
69
What are electrolytes?
Compounds that produce ions when dissolved in water
70
What are ions?
An ion is a charged atom or molecule. It is charged because the number of electrons do not equal the number of protons in the atom or molecule. An atom can acquire a positive charge or a negative charge depending on whether the number of electrons in an atom is greater or less then the number of protons in the atom.
71
What are acids?
Acids are electrolytes that can donate H+ ions in water solution
72
How do we define a strong acid?
We define a strong acid by its dissociation constant.
73
What is a dissociation constant?
The dissociation constant, or Ka, is the ratio of ions to acid. It is determined by comparing the concentration of product to reactants once a reaction reaches equilibrium.
74
What determines a base strength?
An ability of a base to ionise and produce hydroxine ions (OH-)
75
What do pH buffers do?
pH buffers remove acid or base ions from the environment so pH charges are minimised
76
what are triacyl glycerols?
Triacylglycerols, also known as triglycerides, are the simplest lipids formed by fatty acids. It is made up of three fatty acids ester linked to a single glycerol. Most triacylglycerols contain two or three different fatty acids. Triacylglycerols are nonpolar, hydrophobic, and insoluble in water.
77
What are phospholipids?
A phospholipid is a type of lipid molecule that is the main component of the cell membrane. Lipids are molecules that include fats, waxes, and some vitamins, among others. Each phospholipid is made up of two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a glycerol molecule.
78
What are sphingolipids?
any of a class of compounds which are fatty acid derivatives of sphingosine and occur chiefly in the cell membranes of the brain and nervous tissue.
79
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells. They are vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as aiding in digestion and metabolism.
80
What is the prosthetic group?
a non-protein group forming part of or combined with a protein.
81
What is an apoenzyme?
An apoenzyme is an inactive enzyme, activation of the enzyme occurs upon binding of an organic or inorganic cofactor.
82
What is a holoenzyme?
a biochemically active compound formed by the combination of an enzyme with a coenzyme.
83
What is are saturation kinetics?
he kinetics of a reaction (or of mediated transport) when the velocity of the reaction (or of the transport) increases to a maximal value (plateau) as the concentration of the reactant (or of a component being transported) is increased.
84
What is a peroxisome?
a small organelle present in the cytoplasm of many cells, which contains the reducing enzyme catalase and usually some oxidases
85
What are the 3 main types of fibres in the cell?
Microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments
86
What are microfilaments composed of?
Composed of actin proteins
87
What are the main functions of microfilaments?
Cell shape/rigidity, cell division, phagocytosis
88
What is the function of microtubules?
transport of structure within the cell
89
What are microtubules composed of?
Tubulin
90
What are intermediate filaments made of?
Different proteins unlike microfilaments and microtubules
91
What is a microvilli?
Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume, and are involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction.
92
What is the main function of microvilli?
Increase the surface area of cell membrane
93
What is a cilia?
a short microscopic hairlike vibrating structure found in large numbers on the surface of certain cells, either causing currents in the surrounding fluid, or, in some protozoans and other small organisms, providing propulsion.
94
What is a function of a tight junction?
Seals neighbouring cells together in an epithelial sheet to prevent leakage of molecules between them
95
What is a function of adherens junction?
Joins an actin bundle in one cell to a similar bundle in a neighbouring cell
96
What is the function of desmosome?
Joins the intermediate filaments in one cell to those in a neighbor
97
What is a function of a gap junction?
Allows the passage of small
98
What is a function of hemidesmosome?
Anchor intermediate filaments in a cell to the basal lamina
99
How do we distinguish between right and left central maxillary incisor?
The mesioincisal angle
100
How do we distinguish between central and later maxillary central incisors?
Lateral inscisors are smaller and have marginal (side ridges) more prominent than central ridge
101
How do we distinguish central incisors on the mandible from lateral incisors on the mandible?
Central incisors are symmetrical while lateral incisors have mesioincisal angle towards the mid line
102
How do we distinguish between between a 13 and 43
A 43 has a less distinct cingulum
103
What is H&E staining?
H&E staining. The most commonly used staining system is called H&E (Haemotoxylin and Eosin). H&Ec contains the two dyes haemotoxylin and eosin. Eosin is an acidic dye: it is negatively charged (general formula for acidic dyes is: Na+dye-). It stains basic (or acidophilic) structures red or pink. Haemotoxylin is a base: it is positively charged and stains acid structures blue or purple.
104
Why is pH is important in dentistry?
Changes in pH may result to irreversible damage to the teeth
105
What is the critical pH?
5.5
106
What is a fluid in yoru body that needs to be maintained within a narrow pH range?
Blood ( should be near nuetral)
107
What produces acid in the mouth?
Bacteria
108
What are the 3 major factors that may cause a dis balance in mouth pH levels?
Bacterial metabolism, gastric reflux and diet
109
How do we maintain pH stability in the mouth?
By use of saliva (pH buffering)
110
What does the measurement of pH indicate?
Proton concentration
111
What is pH buffer?
A pH buffer is a structures that allows to reduce the fluctuation of pH within an environment
112
What is an electrolyte?
It is a compound that produces ions when dissolved in water
113
What is a strong electrolyte?
A strong electrolyte are substances that completely ionise to make ions in water
114
What is a weak electrolyte?
Weak electrolytes dissolve in water to produce a mixture of ions and molecules.
115
What does H+ actually stand for?
H3O+ because H+ does not exist in nature for a long time thus associates with water
116
What does Ka stand for?
Ka is a dissociation constant
117
When a solution goes above pH of 7, it becomes....?
Basic
118
How to calculate the pH?
1 x 10 ^-pH
119
What are the 3 indicators of good oral health?
- pH of resting saliva
- The amount of saliva produced
- Buffering capacity of sliva
120
What does a buffer contain?
•A buffer usually contains two substances, a weak acid or weak base
and its salt.
121
What weak acid does saliva contain?
Carbonic acid (works with pH above 7.3)
122
What ion is used in saliva to buffer the pH?
Bicarbonate ion (works with pH above 7.3)
123
What is the best way to normalise the pH of the oral environment after eating or drinking something acidic?
Chew gum. Gum will trigger the production of saliva which will increase the amount of bicarbonate ions thus reducing the number of hyronium ions.
124
What does pKa measure?
pKa measures the strength of the weak acid/ weak base.
125
What is pKa?
pKa is the pH at which an acid is 50% dissociated.
126
What is the most abundant molecule in nature?
A carbohydrate
127
What does polyhydroxyl mean?
containing more than one hydroxyl group in the molecule.
128
What is a monosaccharide?
They are simple sugars conataining aldehyde or ketone. Examples Glucose and Fructose.
129
What is a disaccharides ?
A molecule with 2 monosaccharides units, example Surcose.
130
What are oligosaccharides?
A molecule with 3 or more monosaccharide units.
131
What are polysaccharides?
A molecule with 100s - 1000s monosaccharide units. They are branched. Example starch.
132
What does the prefix+ose stand for in carbons?
Prefix stands for the number of carbons present in the molecule.
133
What is an O-Glycosidic bond?
Bond that forms in disaccharides like sucrose, lactose etc.
134
What is homopolysaccharide?
It is a polysaccharide molecule that contains a single monosaccharide unit.
135
What is a heteropolysaccharide?
It is polysaccharide that contains two or more monosaccharide units.
136
Why is coiling of polymers important?
It allows for more efficient conversion of polymers into monosaccharides?
137
What is a part of bacterial cell walls?
Heteropollysaccharide of altering beta (1 to 4)
138
What is EM (extracellular matrix comprised of)
Fibrous proteins and a meshwork of Heteropolysaccharides
139
What is hyaluronic acid made out of?
Repeating units of glucoronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine
140
What are proteoglycans?
Proteoglycans are usually hyaluronic acid attached to extracellular protein/carbohydrate molecule call aggrecans.
141
What is one function of glycoproteins?
They can be used on the surface of the cell membrane as carrier proteins.
142
What are the 5 steps of identifying a tooth?
1. class 2. jaw 3. dentition 4. series 5.side (e.g. incisor, maxillary, permanent, central, right)
143
What are the features of permanent incisors?
1. Trapezoidal from labial. 2. Triangular from proximal. 3. Flat incisal edge for cutting. 4. single root
144
What is the difference between the maxillary and mandibular permanent incisors?
Maxillary incisors are usually larger, the roots are more rounded, central incisor is usually longer then the later incisor
145
What are the key features of maxillary canines?
Bell shape, distinct cingulum, lingual ridge.
146
What are the key features of mandibular canines?
Flat mesial surface and less distinct cingulum & marginal ridges.
147
What are the key features of upper first pre-molars?
2 cusps, central grove, supplemental grooves, mesial developmental groove, hexagonal occlusal outline, mesial developmental depression, 2 roots, buccal cusp is taller.
148
What are the key features of upper second pre-molar?
2 cusps, central groove (less distinct), single root, more supplemental grooves, cusps are nearly equal in height, quite round.
149
What are the key features of lower first pre-molar?
MLI developmental groove, transverse ridge, single root, 45 degree tilt, transverse ridge
150
What are the key features of the lower second pre-molar?
Variable occlusal with either U-shape (2 cusps) or Y-shape (3 cusps), no tilt
151
What are the key features of first upper molars?
Rhomboidal shape, oblique ridge, 4 cusps (larger on the buccal side), sometimes cusp of carabelli, 3 roots
152
What are the key features of the mandibular first molar?
Rectangular in shape, 5 cusps, taller lingual cusps, central groove
153
What are the key features of the mandibular second permanent molar?
Cross shape, 4 cusps,
154
What are the key features of the maxillary second molar?
Smaller then first molar, rounded
155
What determines the function of a protein?
It's unique 3D structure
156
What is the blueprint for a protein?
DNA
157
How many genes are there?
About 20 thousand
158
How many amino acids are there?
About 20
159
What makes up an amino acid?
A central carbon, a hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, an amine group and an R group
160
What do amino acids make good buffers?
Due to the fact that they can lose a hydrogen atom or absorb a hydrogen atom (amino acids make up the protein component of 3 stage saliva buffering theory).
161
What is the key feature of aromatic amino acid?
It is non-polar thus does not associate well with water (oil into water affect)
162
What is the general trend associated with increasing the number of hydro-carbon chains in a molecule?
Increasing the number of hydro-carbon chains results in decrease in water solubility
163
Why is post-translation-modification important to sustain life?
Post-transnational modification allows to modify proteins post translation thus allowing to change said proteins making them more specialised thus more efficient in certain situations (lead to non-standard amino acids).
164
What is a peptide bond?
A peptide bond is a strong covalent bond that formed between amino acids by amide linkages.
165
What are the four structures of proteins?
Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
166
Why is a fatty acid called a fatty acid?
Because it contains a carboxylic acid group
167
What is an amphipathic molecule?
A molecule that contains both hydrophilic and hydrophobic components
168
What is a key feature of a saturated fat?
It doesn't have any double bonds thus it is linear and is a solid at room temperature
169
What is a key feature of unsaturated fat?
It has a double bond in it and is a liquid at room temperature
170
Where is the double bond located in the omega-3 fatty acid?
It is located 3 hydro-carbon chains from the omega ( or the last) hydro-carbon.
171
Why is it a problem for our body to store amphipathic molecules of fat?
Our body wants a relatively non-polar molecule that will allow for storage in the tissue of the body thus the hydrophilic components need to be removed.
172
What does the body do to neutralise fatty acid?
Connect them with glycerol and create triaglycerol and store them.
173
What are the three types of lipids found in our body?
Storage lipids, phospholipids and sphingolipids
174
What is the function of phospholipids in our body?
Create micelles
175
What are some of the functions of sphingolipids?
They are also present in cell membranes and also help to determine blood types (due to the sugars that their tail contains)
176
What is good cholesterol and what is bad cholesterol?
Good cholesterol is the high density one, bad cholesterol is the low density one.
177
What are nuclei acid made out of?
Nucleic acids are made out of monomers called nucleotides
178
What are the 2 primary forms of nucleic acids?
RNA and DNA
179
What are the three core components of a nucleotide?
1. Five carbon (pentose) sugar. 2. Phosphate group. 3. Nitrogenous base.
180
Classify the important carbons within a carbon ring structure of a nucleic acid and define it's function.
1' carbon - bound to nitrogenous base
2' carbon - gives nucleic acid it's name depending on presence / absence of OH group
3' and 5' carbons - bound to phosphate groups associated with conditionality of linear macromolecules.
181
What are the two "flavours" of nitrogenous bases?
Purines (A and G) and pyrimidines (C, T, U)
182
What are the two primary functions of nucleic acids?
1. Encode information for protein synthesis
| 2. Can be copied with high-fidelity
183
What are the four functions of RNA (hint think names)?
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and miRNA
184
What are two main functions of DNA?
Acts as a template for creating RNA and template for creating new DNA
185
What are the two important processes that are associated with enzymes that are essentially there objectives?
1. Hold molecules close together. 2. Have molecules in the correct orientation.
186
What are the two objects that sometimes need to bind to the protein component to create an active enzyme?
Co-factors ( e.g. ions) and co-enzymes (e.g. FAD)
187
What is the active form of an enzyme called?
Holoenzyme
188
What it he inactive form of an enzyme called?
Apoenzyme
189
What is activation energy?
The minimum quantity of energy which the reacting species must possess in order to undergo a specified reaction.
190
What is the primary function of enzymes?
To reduce the activation energy
191
What does weak non covalent bonding produce for an enzyme?
It produces enzyme specificity
192
What is a transitional state?
A transitional state is a moment at which maximum energy is applied on a substrate
193
What does low K(m) mean?
High affinity
194
What are the two types of cells?
Prokaryotes an eukaryotes
195
What are the 4 common components in all cells?
- Membrane bound
- Cytoplasm/ cytosol
- Genetic material - DNA
- Organelle - ribosomes
196
What is the nuclear envelope?
Nuclear envelope is the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
197
Describe chromatin
It is the material that makes up the chromosomes both when condensed and decondensed
198
What is the nucleolus?
Nucleolus is the dark area in the middle of the cell, it is the site of ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotic cells.
199
What is he light part of chromatin in the nucleus?
It is non-tightly bound euchromatin (genetic material is available for protein synthesis)
200
What is the dark apart of chromatin in the nucleus?
It is tightly bound heterochromatin (genetic material is not available for protein synthesis)
201
What are the inclusions within a cell?
They could be inert structures, cell products and materials that nor organelles nor active in metabolism.
202
What it the structure of a ribosome?
Large subunit on top of a smaller subunit, made out of protein
203
Is a ribosome basophilic ?
Yes
204
What is a golgi body used for?
Creation of vesicles for export, modification of protein, carbohydrate synthesis, lysosome production
205
What are the two faces of a vesicle?
Immature and mature face
206
What are the functions of lysosomes?
Used for digestion of foreign substances (e.g. bacteria), autophagy, autolysis hydrolysis
207
What is role of mitochondria?
Conversion of ADP into ATP and conversion of ATP into ADP
208
Why does mitochondria have a folded membrane?
Increased surface area equals more interaction
209
What are the five distinct spaces in mitochondria?
1. Outer mitochondrial membrane. 2. Intermembrane space 3. Inner mitochonrial membrane. 4. Cristae spcae. 5. Matrix
210
What are the three parts that make up the cytoskeleton?
1. microtubules
2. microfilaments / actin filaments
3. intermediate filaments
211
What are the functions of the cytoskeleton?
- cell shape
- cell movement
- cell structure
- organelle & vesicle movement
- cell division
212
Where do you find the microfilaments?
Around the boundary of the cell.
213
Where do you find the intermediate filaments?
In the middle of the cell
214
Where do you find the microtubules?
They form the spindal aparatus
215
What are the functions of microfilaments?
Cell shape, mechanical support (microvilli), cell movement, phagocytosis, cell division
216
What are the functions of microtubules?
Transport of organelles, make up centrioles and cilia
217
What are the functions of intermediate filaments?
Structure, anchorage, support of junctions between cells
218
What are microvilli used for?
Increase surface area
219
What is cilia?
Cilia is a hair like structure that help by physically pushing material like mucus
220
What are the four types of junctions?
1. Tight Junction 2. Zonula adherens 3. Desmosomes 4. Hemidesmosomes
221
What are the functions of a tight junction?
Seals neighboring cells together in an epithelial sheet to prevent leakage of molecules between them
222
What are the functions of a adherens junction?
Joins an actin bundle in one cell to a similar bundle in a neighboring cell
223
What are the functions of a desmosome?
Joins the intermediate filaments in one cell to those in a neighbor
224
What are the functions of a gap junction?
Allows the passage of small water-soluble ions and molecules
225
What are the functions of a hemidesosome?
Anchors intermediate filaments in a cell to the basal lamina
226
What are the three divisions of endocytosis?
1. Phagocytosis 2. Pinocytosis 3. Potocytosis
227
What is the current membrane model?
Fluid mosaic model
228
How can we describe the rate of influx of substrate when talking about simple diffusion?
It is linear
229
How can we describe the rate of influx of substrate when talking about facilitated diffusion?
It has a curvature and has a maximum rate.
230
What are the two types of active transporter?
Primary with use of ATP and secondary with use of Na+ gradients
231
Why are ion channels important?
Without ion channels there would be no electrical signalling.
232
What are the four main classes of ion channels?
K+ channels, NA+ channels, Ca2+ channels and Cl- channels.
233
For 1.1 and 2.1 what is the key curvature feature?
There is a mesioincisal 90 degree angle, triangular from distal and mesial views
234
What is the key feature of mesial / distal view of 1.2 2.2?
It is more triangular and smaller then 1.1/2.1
235
What are the key features of lower central incisors?
More cematrical on both sides, mesial edge is upright and is curved triangle shape from mesial/distal view
236
What are the key features of lower lateral incisors?
Not symmetrical, trapezoidal in shape
237
What are the key features of the upper canines from the R/L side?
Steeper slope from the distal view then mesial
238
What are the key features of the lowr canines from the R/L side?
Steeper slope from the distal view then mesial
239
What are the key features of the upper pre-molars from the R/L side?
Find the mesial developmental groove, indicated the 1st pre-molar and mesial side
240
What image can be seen on the light microscope?
Usually the purple stained image
241
What image can be seen on the TEM?
Usually black and white image
242
What image can be seen on SEM?
Usually very high quality image
243
How can we identify foreign bodies in polarising microscopy?
Usually are shown as crystals or empty spaces
244
What is the most common staining?
H&E staining
245
Distinguish acidophilic and basophilic dyes.
Basic dyes are acidophilic and colour thing in blue (things like DNA), acid dyes are basophilic and colour things in pinkish, magenta colour (things like protein).
246
What is the difference between LM and EM?
EM has greater resolving power
247
Cell polarity is...
the differential & asymmetric organisation of cellular components
248
What are the five functions that require cell polarity?
1. Cell adhesion/ barrier or communication. 2. Concentration of ions across the cell. 3. Efficient absorption. 4. Movement/fluid current flow. 5. Protein synthesis.
249
What are the three surfaces that can be associated with a cell?
Apical, basal and lateral.
250
What are the 8 potential examples of some of the human nucleus types?
Spherical, ovoid, lobulated, segmented, Kidney bean shaped, elongated, condensed, polyploid.
251
What is one advantage and one disadvantage of lobulation?
Advantage: lobulated white blood cells are able to fit in tight spaces. Disadvantage: cells are more susceptible to damage.
252
What is a fusiform cell?
They are spindle-shaped cell, example smooth muscle cells.
253
What are the two types of cell death?
Apoptosis (programmed) and necrosis (accidental)
254
List the steps of apoptosis and describe them
1. Pyknosis (DNA condenses into shrunken basophilic mass) 2. Karyorrhexis ( Nucleus fragmentation. 3. Karyolysis (nuclear fading)
255
What is the main difference in results of apoptosis and necrosis?
Apoptosis results in multiple membrane bound apoptotic bodies and the insides are never released, while necrosis is basically just a release of organelles.
256
What are the 4 primary tissue?
1. Muscle tissue
2. Nervous tissue
3. The epithelium
4. Connective tissue
257
What is a tissue?
A tissue is a group of cell organised to perform one (or more) specific functions.
258
What are the morphological characteristics of epithelium cells?
Epithelium = covers & lines, forms glands:
Shape of cells
Number of cell layers
Specialisation at tissue surface.
259
What are the morphological characteristics of connective tissue?
Connective tissue = underlines & supports:
Type of cells
Type of arrangment of fibres
Relative proportions of cells, fibres & AGS.
260
What are the morphological characteristics of muscle tissue?
Ability of cells to contract
| Contractile proteins present - actin & myosin
261
What are the morphological characteristics of nervous tissue?
Exhibit electrical properties
Ability to receive, transmit & intergrate electrical impulses
Non-excitable supporting cells = neuroglia
262
What are the five characteristics of epithelial tissue?
1. Highly cellular
2. One free surface
3. Basal lamina
4. Avascular
5. Dynamic
263
What are the sub-types of epithelial tissue?
Surface epithelium and glandular epithelium
264
Characteristics of connective tissue.
1. range of cell types
2. Abundat extracellular material
3. Highly vascular
4. CDPST function
265
Characteristic of muscle tissue.
1. Contractile
| 2. 3 subtypes: skeletal, cardiac, smooth.
266
Characteristics of nervous tissue.
1. Composed of neurons & neurogila
| 2. Monitoring and responding
267
What are the three layers of trilaminar embryo?
Ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
268
Ectoderm can produce...
Nervous tissue and epithelium tissue
269
Mesoderm can produce...
Connective tissue, muscle tissue and epithelial tissue
270
Endoderm can produce...
epithelium
271
What is the cutaneous membrane?
Composed of stratified squamous epithelium, underlying CT containing epithelial derivatives. Basically skin
272
What are the two epithelial membranes?
Mucosa and serosa
273
Features of mucosa.
1. Lines cavities connected to outside.
| 2. Surface epithelium,basement membrane, supporting CT +/- glands, smooth muscle
274
Features of serosa.
1. Lines internal body cavities.
| 2. Mesothelium, basement membrane & supporting CT.
275
What is a synovial membrane?
It is a connective tissue membrane that lines capsules of synovial joints. Produces lubricant.
276
What composes microfilaments?
Mostly actin
277
What composes microtubules?
tubulin
278
What composes intermediate filament?
Many different proteins
279
What is fibronectin?
Fibronectin is a protein that is involved in a number of functions like connective tissue etc.
280
What are the 5 characteristics of epithelial tissue?
1. Highly cellular 2. Forms sheets or layers 3. Basal lamina 4. Avascular 5. Dynamic
281
What are the 4 functions of surface epithelium?
1. Barrier 2. Secretion 3. Absorption 4. Bidirectional transportation
282
What are the clusters of glandular epithelial cells are called?
Acini
283
What are the two types of glands?
Exocrine and endocrine glands
284
What are the three components of cell to cell adhesion?
1. Adhering junctions 2. Tight junctions 3. Communicating junctions
285
Where does basal lamina lay?
It lies at the interface between epithelial cells & adjacent connective tissue.
286
Where else can we see the basal lamina?
Between muscle cells & CT, nervous tissue & CT.
287
What are the three functions of basal lamina?
1. Filter 2. Fence 3. Frame
288
What are the three shapes of epithelial cells?
1. Squamous 2. Cubiodal 3. Columnar
289
What does keratinised cell mean?
It means that the cell is dead
290
What is metaplasia?
Transformation of one type of epithelium into another via replacement of one differentiated cell type with another mature differentiated cell type normally present in the tissue.
291
What are the three components of CT?
1.Cells 2, AGS 3. Fibres
292
How do we classify the CT?
1. Proportions of cell to fibres to AGS. 2. Organisation/orientation of fibres.
293
What does mesechyme give rise to?
CT cells and stem blood cells
294
What are the three types of fibres?
Collagen, elastic & reticular
295
What types of cell are present in CT?
1. Structural cells (fibroblasts for creation and adipocytes for storage) 2. Immature cells (ECM) 3. Mature cells (all the cytes)
296
What defensive cells are there?
Macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells, lymphocytes, neutrophils & eosinophils.
297
What are the two key observations about AGS?
1. Located between cells & fibres. 2. Functions to provide medium for substance exchange.
298
What are the variations of AGS?
1. Fluid (Blood) 2. Semifluid (Cartilage) 3. Gelatinous (loose and dense CT) 4. Hard (Bone)
299
What is collagen used for?
Strength (Thick looking fibrils, banded)
300
What are reticular fibres used for?
Net-like network for cells
301
What are elastic fibres used for?
Elasticity (not as thick and not banded)
302
What are the 3 roles of fibres?
1. Connecting and binding tissues & organs & transmitting force. 2. Giving support shape and flaxibility 3. Protection
303
What are the three roles of cells?
1. Store energy and act as insulation. 2. Protect the body from infections
304
What is the role of AGS?
Transport nutrient/waste products between blood & epithelium.
305
What are the two types of connective tissue?
Loose CT (more AGS then fibres) and dense CT (more fibres then AGS)
306
What are the two types of dense CT?
Dense regular (fibres run parallel), dense irregular (fibres run in different direction)
307
What is progression complexity related to collagen family protein?
Fibrils to fibres to fibre bundles.
308
What are the three types of collagen?
Fibrillar collagens, network or sheet forming collagens, linking & anchoring collagens.
309
What cell creates collagen?
Fibroblasts
310
What is a illongate nucleus that can be sometimes found in collagen?
It is a fibrocyte, a cell that before was a fibroblast that created this collagen fibre
311
How are reticular fibres represented?
Tiny koonts
312
What are elastic fibres formed from?
elastine
313
What do they look like?
Branched and long
314
Where is elasin prominant?
Aorta
315
What is AGS composed of?
Protein and carbohydrate components
316
Where do fat cells originate from?
They arise from mesenchymal cells during period from late fetus to aprrox. 15 months
317
Where do macrophages arise from?
Monocytes
318
What are the key features of macrophages?
1. Pseudopodia 2. Phagosomes 3. Lysosomes 4. Residual bodies 5. RER 6. Microtubules
319
What is a distinct feature of a plasma cell?
It looks like a clock.
320
Role of mast cell?
Need special staining for mast cells. Storage of chemical mediators of infalmatory response. Allergy reactions.
321
What are the three types of leukocytes?
Lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils.
322
How do we separate secretory cells?
They are either endocrine, exocrine, unicellular or multicellular
323
Explain the development of exocrine glands?
Invagination of epithelial cells, further differentiation, creation of a duct
324
What is an acinus?
Cluster of secretory cells
325
What are the two types of secretion produced by acini cells?
Mucous acini and serous acini
326
What are the three types of secretion?
Merocrine (only secretion), apocrine (secretion and some cytoplasm (mammary gland)), holocrine (entire cell becomes secretion (sebaceaous glands))
327
What are the myoepithelial cells?
Basiclally muscle like sells that surround galnds and contract
328
What is the main difference between mucosa and serosa?
Mucosa line the cavities which are in contact with outside environment, serosa line the organs.
329
What 2 tissue types make up the mucosa?
Innermost surface epithelium & underlying loose connective tissue
330
What are the three types of serosa?
1. Parietal peritoneum 2. Masentery 3. viseral peritoneum
331
What are the three layers of skin?
Epidermis, dermis and hypodermis
332
What are the two types of skin?
Thin skin (the most common) and thiiiiiiiiccc skin (covers palms and soles)
333
Describe epidermis.
Stratified squamous keratinised epithelium, no blood vessels
334
What is the main cell type in the epidermis?
Keratinocyte
335
Name the layers of the epidermis starting from the bottom to the top.
1. Stratum basale 2. Stratum spinosum 3. Stratum granulosum 4. Stratum corneum
336
What are the key features of stratum basale?
1. Keratinocytes on basement membrane 2. Desmosomes between kearatinocytes. 3, Hemidesmosomes adhere cell to dermis 4. Cytokeratins appear
337
What are the key features of stratum spinosum?
1. Cells begin to flatten 2. Accumulate keratin 3. Narrow gaps present between keratinocytes 4. Cytoplasmic extensions snap gaps & are joined by desmosomes
338
What are the key features of stratum granulosum?
1. Granular layer (water proofing) 2. Keratinocytes die
339
What is the key feature of stratum corneum?
It is dead
340
What are melanocytes?
They are cells that produce melanin, they are present in the basal layer and go between keratinocytes.
341
What are the langerhans cells?
They are cells that differentiate from the monocytes, they are a type of macrophage, have a role in inflamitory response for example dermatitis
342
Epidermal ridge?
When epidermis goes into the dermis
343
Dermal papila?
When dermis goes into epidermis
344
What are the two layers of the dermis?
Papillary layer (Loose Ct, fine elastic fibres & collagen) and reticular layer (dense irregular CT, withstands stress in all direction)
345
Difference between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands?
Eccrine is just regular and apocrine relate to hair follicles
346
What is arrector pili muscle & sebaceous glands?
Arrector pili muscle make the hair follicles go upright and sebaceous glands secrete the lubricant.
347
What is the cutaneous plaxus?
A layer of blood vessels that is present in the dermis and hypodermis junction
348
What is the sub-papillary plexus?
A layer of blood vessels that runs between papillary & reticular layers.
349
What are the three models of the Dentist-Patient relationship?
Paternalism, consumerism, Mutual / Collaborative
350
What do we mean by matrix?
Matrix - intercellular components are firm, resist deformation
351
What do we mean by lacuna?
Hollow spaces in the matrix in which cell reside.
352
What cells are related to cartilage?
Chondrocytes (they create matrix)
353
What collagen type is used for crtilage?
Type 2
354
What is perichondrium?
Dense irregular CT that envelopes the cartilage
355
What are the two types of growth o fht ecartilage?
Interstitial growth (matrix growth) and appositional growth (new layer of perichondrium)
356
What are the three types of cartilage?
Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
357
What are the osteoblasts?
Bone forming cells
358
What are osteocytes?
Cells that maintain matrix
359
What are the oseoclasts?
bone resorbing cells
360
What are the three layers of the mucosa?
Wpithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa
361
What are the three types of oral mucosa?
Masticatory mucosa, lining mucosa, specialised mucosa.
362
What are the two types of keratinasation?
Orthokeratinisation and parakeratinisation
363
What make up NS?
brain, spinal cord, nerves ganglia
364
What are the functional divisions of the nervous system?
Somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system, enteric nervous system
365
What is the amount of neurons and the glial cells in hour nervous system?
10% is comprised of neurons, 90% is comprised of glial cells
366
What neuron is used as a sennsory object?
Unipolar
367
What neuron is used in the eye retina?
Bipolar
368
What neuron is used as a motor neuron and interneuron?
Multipolar
369
What are the foru types of glia cells in the central nervous system?
1. Ependynal cells 2. Microglia 3. Oligodendrocytes 4. Astrocytes
370
What is the ependymal cell?
It is a cell that forms the ependyma, it is a simple columnar epithelium with cilia and it produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
371
What is the microglia in brain?
It is a cell that forms monocytes in blood, phagocytic cells, it continuesley surveys CNS environment.
372
What is the oligodendrocyte?
Provides myclin in CNS
373
What is an astrocyte?
It is a star shaped cell, utilised for numerous cellular processes, it creats a blood brain barrir.
374
What is the BBB?
BBB is the blood brain barrier and it allows for the brain to be separated from the blood in order to create better regulation
375
What are the three layers of the meninges?
Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
376
What does CSF do?
While the primary function of CSF is to cushion the brain within the skull and serve as a shock absorber for the central nervous system, CSF also circulates nutrients and chemicals filtered from the blood and removes waste products from the brain.
377
Grey matter is mostly composed of?
Neuron cell bodies
378
White matter is composed of?
Axons
379
What is the fast pain axon?
A delta - myclinated axon
380
What is the slow pain axon?
C - unmyelinated axon
381
What are the three basic muscle types?
1. Skeletal 2. Cardiac 3. Smooth muscle
382
What are myocytes?
They are muscle fibers
383
What are sacolemma?
Muscle cell membrane
384
What is sacoplasm?
It is the muscle cell cytoplasm
385
Ligaments attach?
Bone to bone
386
Tendons attach?
Muscle to bone
387
What is the epimysium?
Epimysium is a connective tissue that covers the entire skeletal muscle.
388
What is fascia?
It is a fibrous tissue that is web like
389
What is a muscle fibre cell?
A muscle fibre cell is composed of many fibrils which give the cell its striated appearence. Myofibrils are bundles of myofilament (actin & myosin)
390
In what order would you perform an extra-oral soft tissues exam.
1. Check the whole face 2. Check facial symmetry 3. Cheeks 4. Nose, philtrum, nasolabial groove 5. Lips 6. Mandible 7. TMJ 8. Lymph nodes
391
In what order would you perform an inter oral exam of the vestibule
1. Upper and lower fornix 2. Gingiva 3. Overall colour and texture 4. Mucogingival junction 5. Alveolar mucosa 6. Frenae 7. Maxillary tuberosity. 8. Retromolar triangle
392
`What comprises the central nervous system?
Nerves, ganglia, nerve endings
393
How many peripheral nerves are thre?
31 pairs
394
How many cranial nerves are there?
12
395
What elements are there in the peripheral nerve structure?
Epinerium, perinerium and endonerium
396
What cell type malinates the central nervous system neuron?
Oligodendrocyte
397
What cell type malinates the peripheral nervous system neuron?
Schwann cell
398
What are the most relevant nerves for dental practice?
CN V & CN VII
399
Using the ionic basis of resting membrane potential explain which ions are move n which dirrection to maintain V of -60mV
Potassium can go either in or out, sodium usually goes in in small amounts, calcium goes in in very small amounts, chloride goes in in very small amounts. Special ATP pump is available to pump 3 sodiums out and bring 2 potassiums in.
400
WHat hapens when membrane potential goes above 0 mV?
Cell is depolorised
401
What happens if it goes from + to - ?
It is repolorised
402
What happens if it goes below the rest membrane potential?
It is hyperpolarised
403
What is the formula for electrical work?
Work = (the amount of ions moved)*(charge of ions moved)*(constant)*(voltage gradient)
404
The formula for chemical work is?
Work = (the amount of ions moved)*(constant)*(constant)*ln(concentration gradient)
405
What is the resting potential for potassium?
-93 mV
406
What is the resting potential for sodium?
+60 mV
407
What is the resting potential for chlorine?
-62 mV
408
How does depolarisation happen?
Openning of sodium channels
409
How does repolarisation happen?
Increased permiability to potassium
410
What structure conducts the action potential in a neuron?
Axon
411
What do myelinated axons have?
Nodes
412
What is a refractory period?
It is a period where a large number of sodium channels are unable to open thus, even witha big stimulus there will be no response
413
What is presynapsis?
It is electrical to chemical signal
414
What is post synapses?
It is chemical to electrical signal
415
What are the three types of crine signaling?
Autocrine, paracrine, endocrine
416
What are the three main types of hormones?
Peptides and proteins, steroids and amines
417
What are the two types of heart circulation?
Systemic and Pulmonary
418
What vessels does blue (depleted of oxygen blood) use?
Systemic veins, pulmonary arteries.
419
What vessels does red (oxygenated blood) use?
Systemic arteries, pulmonary veins
420
What are the four great vessels of the heart?
Aorta, superior & inferior vena cavae, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins
421
What is the pericardium?
double-walled sac containing the heart and the roots of the great vessels.
422
What are the muscle of the heart called?
Myocardium (forms the mid layer)
423
What is the endocardium?
Inner heart lining
424
Rank blood vessels from largest to largest.
Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins
425
What are the three layers of the vascular wall?
1. Tunica intima 2. Tunica media 3. Tunica adventitia
426
What is an endothelial cell?
Endothelial cells form the barrier between vessels and tissue and control the flow of substances and fluid into and out of a tissue.
427
What factors are produced by the EC?
Vasodilators, antithrombotic, growth inhibitors, vasoconstrictors, prothrombotic, growth promotrs
428
What elements are in blood?
Cells, plsma, cell fragments (platelets)
429
What proteins are present in plasma?
Albumin, globulins, fibrinogen
430
What are the five major types of white blood cells?
Monocytes, lymphocyes, neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil
431
What area of the mouth do we cover in periodontology?
Gingiva, periodontal attachment apparatus, cementum, periodontal ligament, alveolar bone
432
What is the function of gingiva?
Gingiva protects the udnerlying tooth structures
433
What it the area of the gingiva closest to the tooth?
Gingival margin
434
What it the line called that attaches alveolar mucosa to the gingiva?
Mucogingival junction
435
What is the gingiva that is situated between the teeth called?
Interdental papilla
436
What is the name of the fibres present in the periodontal ligament?
Sharpey's fibres
437
What is the first type of cementum?
Acellular, afibrillar cementum (mineralized ground substance produced by cementoblasts)
438
What is the second type of cementum?
Acellular, extrinsic-fiber cementum (densely packed fibres, produced by cementoblasts and fibroblasts)
439
What is the third type of cementum?
Cellular intrinsic-fiber cementum (circular fibres, produced by cementoblasts)
440
What is the forth type of cementum?
Cellular mixed-fiber cementum (extrinsic and intrinsic fibers, produced by cementoblasts and fibroblasts)
441
What are the three part of the alveolar bone?
1. Alveolar bone proper 2. Trabecular bone 3. Compact bone
442
What is the main difference in term of calcium use between cardiac/skeletal muscle to smooth muscle?
Cardiac/skeletal muscle use Ca2+ troponin for regulation of contraction while smooth muscle use Ca2+ calmodulin
443
What are the three way we can stimulate hormone release?
Hormonal, neural and humoral
444
Why is calcium important?
Bone strength, control calcium channels, cardia and skeletal muscle, neurotransmitters etc
445
What does PTH do?
Increase the reabsorption of calcium in the nephron by use of vitamin D
446
What is a periodontal pocket?
A periodontal pocket is a pathologic increase in the depth of the gingival crevice or sulcus surrounding a tooth at the gingival margin
447
What is the normal depth for PPD?
3mm
448
What are the three major sweat glands?
1. Parotid gland (serous acini) 2. Submandibular glands (serous and mucous acini) 3. Sublingual gland (mucous)
449
What are the two types of saliva?
1. Primary 2. Secondary
