Becoming a World Power Flashcards
(95 cards)
1
Q
1865-1869 – Andrew Johnson (Democrat) (4)
A
- Acquisition of Alaska as a colonial possession
- Seen as pathway to the eventual annexation of Canada
- Senate prohibits further expansion, specifically: Hawaii, Cuba, Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Greenland and Iceland
- US Troops dispatched to the Mexican border, as an informal enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine.
2
Q
1869-1877 – Ulysses S. Grant (Republican) (3)
A
- Encouragement of guerilla warfare in Cuba against Spanish dominion
- Failed but tried to annex Santo Domingo – support was withheld from Senate
- Alabama Claims – US attempted to extract compensation from Britain for disruption to shipping during the Civil War (it did, supporting the South for cotton).
- Through the Treaty of Washington, Britain was forced to pay $15.5 million.
3
Q
1877-1881 – Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) (4)
A
- Suspension of the Burlingame Treaty, which was introduced 20yrs prior for Chinese inflow.
- Revival of notions to create a Panama Canal
4
Q
1881-1881 – James A. Garfield (Assassinated) (1)
A
- Probably wanted to do something before, well, it happened.
5
Q
1881-1885 – Chester A. Arthur (Republican) (1)
A
- Invested heavily in the navy- “Father of the Steel Navy,”
- Arthur sought the construction of steam-powered steel cruisers, steel rams, and steel-clad gunboats
6
Q
1885-1889 – Grover Cleveland (Democrat) (3)
A
- Generally negative imperialism
- Opposing German efforts (est. a puppet monarch) in Samoa
- Most controversial motion: Venezuela – British attempts Orinoco River spurred motions
- Twenty-inch gun missive – alongside mobilizing naval forces on Venezuela
7
Q
1889-1893 – Benjamin Harrison (Republican) (3)
A
- Risked war with Chile over harm done to US sailors in Valparaiso - Chile conceded $75,000 in reparations.
- Launched the nation on the road to empire.
- Chilean and Samoan episodes, inspired Theodore Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” diplomacy.”
8
Q
1897-1901 – William McKinley (Republican) (6)
A
- Cuba - Spanish repression caused revolution. McKinley ordered the U.S. battleship Maine to Havana harbor, both to protect American citizens and property and to demonstrate that the United States still valued Spain’s friendship.
- Maine - destroyed. Spain declared war on US.
- Congress passes Teller Amendment - “any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction or control over said island, except for the pacification thereof.”
- Spain’s Atlantic fleet destroyed in the waters between Cuba and Jamaica, and U.S. troops captured Puerto Rico.
- War ends with Paris Peace Treaty; Dec 1898. US obtained Puerto Rico, Guam, and—for $20 million—the Philippine Islands. Spain also renounced its claim to Cuba, which remained under U.S. military occupation until 1902.
- Thereafter, Cuba would be a U.S. protectorate until 1934.
- Nationalist Filippinos under Aguinaldo rise against US. The war lasted until 1902, claimed the lives of more than 5,000 Americans and some 200,000 Filipinos.
- American interests in Asia were not limited to the Philippines. China emerged as a major foreign policy concern for the McKinley administration, especially as Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, and Japan, among others, scrambled throughout the 1890s to establish their own “spheres of influence” in that nation. Fearful that the Europeans and Japanese might close Chinese ports to U.S. commerce, McKinley authorized Secretary of State John Hay to issue an “Open Door” note on China. This circular strongly expressed the American desire to place all commercial nations on an equal footing in China, unencumbered by discriminatory tariffs or other restrictions. It also declared U.S. support for a non-colonized and independent China. The “Open Door” policy stands as one of the most important policy statements ever issued by the U.S. State Department.
9
Q
1901-1909 – Theodore Roosevelt (Republican) (3)
A
- In 1903, the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty with Panama gave the United States perpetual control of the canal for a price of $10 million and an annual payment of $250,000.
- Complete in 1914.
- Venezuala 1902 - Germany and Britain sent ships to blockade that country’s coastline. Response: U.S. Navy expanded into one of the largest in the world, by convincing Congress to add battleships to the fleet and increasing its number of enlisted men.
- 1907 - Great White Fleet Tour - demo power
10
Q
1909-1913 – William Howard Taft (Republican) (1)
A
- “dollar diplomacy,” - investments in South and Central American, the Caribbean, and the Far East.
- Officials plug heavy industrial goods and military hardware.
- U.S. military was a tool of economic diplomacy.
- U.S. banks to rescue debt-ridden Honduras with loans and grants
- 2,700 U.S. marines to stabilize Nicaragua’s conservative, pro-U.S. regime when rebels threatened to overthrow its government.
11
Q
Wilson’s perspective on Latin America
A
Hoped “to cultivate the friendship and deserve the confidence” of the Latin American states, but he also emphasized that he believed “just government” must rest “upon the consent of the governed.”
12
Q
What did Wilson do in 1916?
A
Purchased Virgin Islands from Denmark @ $25milion
13
Q
What was the Mexican problem
A
- 1913 - General Huerta, who clamped a bloody authoritarian rule on the country.
- Most European nations welcomed the order and friendly climate for foreign investments that Huerta offered, but Wilson refused to recognize “a government of butchers” that obviously did not reflect the wishes of the Mexican people.
- His stance encouraged anti-Huerta forces in northern Mexico led by Venustiano Carranza.
14
Q
How did Wilson justify the occupation of Veracruz?
A
- Mexican officials in Tampico arrested a few American sailors who blundered into a prohibited area, and Wilson used the incident to justify ordering the U.S. Navy to occupy the port city of Veracruz.
15
Q
How did the skirmish with Mexico end?
A
- Troops captured on both sides, led Wilson to reaffirm commitment to self-determination. Attempted to secure border. Withdrew entirely from Mexico in 1917
16
Q
What was the Zimmermann Telegram about?
A
German alliance with Mexico in event of war would see restoration of New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and California, which had been ceded to the United States after the Mexican War in 1848.
17
Q
When was the Lucitania sunk?
A
May 1915 - British liner Lusitania off the coast of Ireland, killing nearly 1,200 people, including 128 Americans.
18
Q
What was Wilson’s response to the U-Boat campaign?
A
- Wilson urged cessation of UB campaign
- Fearing war, Secretary Bryan resigned in June 1915.
- Effective until 1917, when British blockade proved intolerable.
19
Q
What were the voting stats from Congress on WWI?
A
- Senate 82:6
- House: 373:50
20
Q
What was the ambition of the U.S. motions in WWI?
A
Make the world safe for democracy
21
Q
What had Wilson been doing since 1915?
A
1915 - push towards military preparedness - making mobilisation easier in 1917
22
Q
How many US soldiers were abroad in 1918, how many died, etc.
A
- 2m served. Lost 115,000 men, 48,000 killed in action. The rest died from diseases and accidents
23
Q
Who were the opposition in the motion of LoN
A
- “reservationists” and “irreconcilables”
24
Q
Who led the Reservationists?
A
Henry Cabot Lodge, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
25
What did Lodge believe?
Lodge believed the obligations of the League would compromise American independence and proposed amendments to meet that threat.
26
How did Wilson respond to Republican opposition?
Substantial 29-city campaign
27
What did Historian Jackson Turner warn Americans in 1893?
Chicago World Fair - 1893 - US would have no frontier to conquer in the new century
28
Who was an influential intellect during this period?
* Mahan - Expansionism through powerful navy and colonies.
* Influenced Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge.
* These individuals looked beyond American shores for new frontiers, world markets, and overseas colonies.
29
Who were key anti-imperialists?
William Jennings Bryan, author Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie and Benjamin Harrison
30
When was Britain overtaken by the US in steel production?
1880s, followed by the Germans in the 1890s
31
What did the Liberal-Imperialists believe?
* Liberal-imperialists in the US saw domestic agenda married with foreign policy – anti-imperialists fundamentally obscured the realisation of US true destiny.
32
What had Republicans argued since the civil war?
* America as doing the world’s work was a popular image From the Civil War on, Republicans had argued that low tariffs created a permanent subservience to Britain
33
Who were the main movers and shakers in the 1880s?
In 1880s, the six key players were Britain, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Russia & Italy.
34
Who were the key pushers into the international frontier?
American businessmen
35
Evidence of rising US assertiveness
Economic conflict with Canada, 1871Risk of war with Chile in 1892
36
Who was for annexation of Hawaii?
Henry Cabot Lodge- Hawaii stood like "a Gibraltar in the pathway of American commerce", and the US needed the islands to secure naval control of the Pacific.
37
What dominated 19th c American thought?
Anglophobia/ isolationism
38
Quote from Orville Platt
"A policy of isolation did well enough when we were an embryo nation, but today things are different… We are sixty-five million of people, the most advanced and powerful on earth, and regard our future welfare demands an abandonment of the doctrines of isolation"
39
When can we see America being drawn into the European question?
1894-5
* Sino-Japanese War
* Armenian Crisis
US flirted with role in global politics
40
What war gained a lot of coverage?
Sino-Japanese war garnered a lot of coverage - Cleveland’s offer of mediation was repudiated however for looking to be too gratuitous in meddling
41
Who spurred on the Armenian commentary?
* Intensification of conflict in Armenia led to rallies and protests, especially driven by the Evangelicals and Presbyterians
42
What did the 1895 Gubernational campaign accomplish?
1895 gubernatorial campaign - Massachusetts Republicans condemn the Cleveland administration for its failure to act in Armenia "the episode had nevertheless showed the Americans could become aroused over events far from home" Talk of action in China and the Med was potentially indicative of a change of perception of America’s might.
43
What was the view of the British in light of the Spanish-American war?
* Only truly with the American victory in the Spanish-American war that "Britain had been shocked into realisation that the US was a nation, not a myth"
44
Why was Cuba an issue to McKinley?
Cuba was an issue - among other things, it threatened sugar supplies to the US
45
What was the changing face of the Cuban rebellion?
Cuba was an issue - among other things, it threatened sugar supplies to the US
46
What was unique to Hawaiian annexation?
* This was not support for colonisation - (Hawaii) - more an exceptional case. Imperialism was not seen to be the way forward - for Catholic World and Protestant Independent.
47
What did McKinley state changed his position on Hawaii?
Went to congress with story of a vision from God. Claimed that:
1. Could not be returned to the Spanish
2. Could not be turned over to the French or British
3. Could not be left to self-govern
4. America had a responsibility to educate and christianise.
48
What could be said of the 1890s?
* Hawaii, Cuba, China, Turkey, Venezuala - forced US into more international frame
49
Charlie Laderman
- Armenian Massacre motivated by interpretations of religion and national allegiance (ARM support for RUS).
- Grassroots support - ACIA, Press. Missionary Herald - Americans could no longer hide behind the Monroe doctrine, needed active role in world affairs, in the Near East.
50
Frank Ninkovich
* Roosevelt - first modern President, preoccupation with power, and through US imposition of power on a global stage.
* Moral diplomacy key to Roosevelt - right over might
* "Given his personal incarnation of national character, it was perhaps inevitable that raw power drives, both individual and collective, became the interpretive benchmarks of Roosevelt’s foreign policy.
* Civilisation lost its deterministic, laissez-faire connotations and took on an active, purposeful, and forceful meaning in foreign affairs.
* To Roosevelt, all this seemed historically continuous.
* Imperialism was a natural outgrowth of America’s continental expansion (a point hotly contested by an ageing generation of anti-imperialists precisely on the basis of conservative historical arguments) Consistent with the Federalist foreign policy tradition to which he paid profuse public homage. The Rooseveltian conception of civilisation was an unsatisfying expression of the American impulse to internationalism. The more directly one trained the spotlight of civilisation on the allegedly advanced states, the more barbarous they appeared."
51
Emily Rosenburg
* American dream of high consumption and high technology was accompanied by an ideology of "liberal-developmentalism" - this merged 19th century tenets with the historical experience of American development to elevate the beliefs and experiences of America’s unique historical time and circumstance into developmental laws applicable everywhere
52
Joshua Thompson
* Dominance of the WH not complete. Southern ties to Europe strong.
* US market share in Argentina, Brazil and Chile = \<15%
* WWI brought the rejection of abstention, projection of power overseas. These developments were short-lived - "*not only was the army demobilised and the swollen budget slimmed, but the active participation in European affairs was not sustained"*
* Wilson mobilised moralistic language against Germany (war against barbarism, autocracy)
53
What were some of the moral arguments in support of the Allies?
\* Such an intense response to the war in Europe was not typical. The majority of Americans, especially west of the Appalachians and in small towns and rural areas, were much more detached from events across the Atlantic. *The war was commonly seen as arising from the monarchical, caste-bound, and militaristic character of the Old World,* and thus as further proof of the superiority of republican America—where, it was often observed, people from all the warring countries were living together in peace. "We never appreciated so keenly as now the foresight exercised by our forefathers in migrating from Europe"
54
Quote about the Maine
Remember the Maine! To Hell with Spain!
55
Wilson speech for the coming of the end of the war
The world has been made safe for democracy. There need now be no fear that any such mad design as that entertained by the insolent and ignorant Hohenzollerns and their counsellors may prevail against it. ***But democracy has not yet made the world safe against irrational revolution.*** That supreme task, which is nothing less than the salvation of civilization, now faces democracy, insistent, imperative. There is no escaping it, unless everything we have built up is presently to fall in ruin about us; and the United States, as the greatest of democracies, must undertake it.
56
How many new states since 1865?
12 new states since 1865
57
How many acres of land had been occupied between 1870-1900
**430 million acres** occupied between 1870-1900, *more than the previous 300 years (407 million acres)*
58
What happened to the population from 1865 onwards?
Population from 36 million in 1865 to 100 million in 1915
59
How had GDP changed during the period?
Productivity per capita increased 2.5% per annum between 1870 to 1910
60
How had GNP changed by 1911?
GNP 5x greater than 40 years earlier
61
Cattle and sheep population change?
2x as many sheep, cattle, hogs
62
How had corn and wheat production changed?
250% increase in wheat and corn production.
63
How had coal production changed?
12x more coal in 1910 than 1870
64
How many more steel rails?
6.5x more steel rails
65
How had oil consumption changed?
Oil production from 5.2 million to 209.5 million barrels
66
What was to be repudiated?
1870 on, increasing pressure to repudiate the 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Great Britain, which had stipulated that any canal across the isthmus of central America should be jointly constructed and controlled
67
What inspired naval dominance?
Battleship navy had been inspired by The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, by A T Mahan
68
What did the Platt amendment confirm?
The Platt Amendment of 1901, (Protectorate status - see Rosenberg) forbad Cuba from forming ties with a foreign power but also granted the US the right to establish a naval base in the region
69
What did the US claim in 1904?
* "an international police power" in its sphere. This formed "benevolent supervision" of the region of the Caribbean, including taking control of custom house receipts, management of financiers, and provision of US loans from US banks. Behind all this was a threat of military intervention.
70
What were the limits to expansion?
* Geographic - US made hardly any attempt to break Asia, and remained instinctively detached from Europe.
* Roosevelt's intervention in Moroccan Crisis, 1905-6 might seem like an exception
* Actions in Philippines indicated the US wanted to be a diplomatic player in the Far East.
* Roosevelt came to find that the Philippines were not an asset but a liability - America's "Achilles Heel". Furthermore, it became increasingly evident that Japanese designs in Asia could not be checked.
71
**May, Ernest - The Emergence of America as a Great Power (Book)**
How did America become more bold through the second half of the 1800s?
* post civil war, naval presence was negligible, negated. By 1890, the projected fleet was to have world class 15 cruisers, and 6 battleships, easily trying with Germany.
* Manifest destiny reentered discourse in 1880s. Darwinian John Fiske was actively promoting a huge federation of countries dedicated to humanity.
* American businessmen also aggressively pushing into markets, especially in terms of oil.
72
**May, Ernest - The Emergence of America as a Great Power (Book)**
Orville Platt quote (on Hawaii)
"A policy of isolation did well enough when we were an embryo nation, but today things are different… We are sixty-five million of people, the most advanced and powerful on earth, and regard our future welfare demands an abandonment of the doctrines of isolation"
73
**May, Ernest - The Emergence of America as a Great Power (Book)**
What guise did American imperialism take?
Imperialism, led by Lodge, Frye and Morgan took moralistic as well as imperialistic overtures in their case - security, advantage and gain were mixed with manifest, destiny, duty and mission
However not completely set - Americans could not decide whether FP was a matter of business or conscience
74
**May, Ernest - The Emergence of America as a Great Power (Book)**
Where were there protests in favour of Cuba?
* Civil war in Cuba, and against Spain - with America naturally sympathetic to Cuba
* Series of demonstrations across NY, Phila, Kansas City, Cleveland, Akron, Cincinnati, and Providence
75
**May, Ernest - The Emergence of America as a Great Power (Book)**
What is May's position on the rise of America's global role?
In the 1890s the US had not sought a new role in world affairs. Issues in Hawaii, China, Turkey, Venezuela and Cuba had intruded almost of their own accord.
76
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
What did Cuba become to America?
"Cuba thus became a **laboratory for methods of influence** that fell short of outright colonialism. Using the Platt Amendment s a model, American presidents negotiated protectorate treaties with other anions in the strategically and economically important canal area- with Panama, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Haiti. These protectorates also received a dose of military directed Americanisation" "Outright colonialism [was] out of fashion"
77
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
What was the promotional state?
* Farmers and industrialists were putting increasing pressure on government to drive international participation
* The promotional State represented the partnership of businessmen and the government in a loose, liberal binding
* Enlarged government action was expected to also demand an enlarged navy.
* The McKinley Tariff Act 1890 became the first to contain bargaining/ reciprocacy provisions.
* Payne-Aldrich Tariff 1909 also introduced the permanent tariff commission - to determine whether tariffs were most advantageous in the changing world climate
78
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
What was dollar diplomacy?
* Under Taft, an outspoken globalist, dollar diplomacy emerged. Dollar diplomacy stressed that growth of private economic ties internationally would increase both the strategic position and economic prosperity of the US.
* "Substituting dollars for bullets ... It is an effort frankly directed to the increase of American trade upon the axiomatic principle that the Government of the United States shall extend all proper support to every legitimate and beneficial enterprise abroad... If this Government is really to preserve to the American people that free opportunity in foreign markets which will soon be indispensable to our prosperity, even greater efforts must be made . . . The absolute essential is the spirit of united effort and singleness of purpose." - Taft, 1912
79
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
Rosenburg's position on Wilson
* Increased its moralistic zeal, and enlarged government's role in spreading economic and cultural influence. Especially during World War I, the Wilson Administration expanded the scope of the promotional state in order to usher in a reformed and liberalized international order. Wilson believed that a postwar world of open economic access, growing American economic might, and international cooperation led by the United States would ultimately bring prosperity and development, peace and liberal democracy to most people. To Wilson, as to his predecessors, America's influence and global progress went hand in hand.
80
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
How can we see Wilson's dedication to economic expansion?
* Wilson's dedication to economic expansion, coupled with the growth of wartime bureaucracies, extended the apparatus of the promotional state. New techniques, new war agencies, and new ' legislation all pointed toward a new era for American trade and investment
* Federal Reserve Act 1913 - statutory basis for American banks to establish branches in foreign countries - NY became the centre of promoting international ventures
* The War Trade Board, 1917, also became an agent of economic expansion
81
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
What was the essence of the progressive movement?
* The government was to be the servant of public good, of order and rationality, of harmony between public and private endeavours - the essence of the progressive movement and the promotional state"
82
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
How did Roosevelt attempt to monopolise communications?
Cables
* Push for breaking the British monopoly with an all-American cable system
* Motion was done on the pretence of liberal principles.
* Persistence saw the all-American system complete in 1919.
Radio
* Marconi initially attempted monopolic preeminence
* Wilson saw radio as critical for "beaming truth directly to the people"
* Became the first person to address "the world" on the 14 points
* In little more than a decade after WWI, the US constructed the foundations of an extensive communications empire.
83
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
How was the promotional state moulded under Harrison to Wilson?
First, America's own development did not arise from following these liberal principles but from an expedient mix of individual initiatives and government policies promoting growth
The Admin from Benjamin Harrison to Woodrow Wilson, most of the framework for the Promotional state was hammered into place: a big navy, bargaining tariffs, the open door policy, attempts to spread the gold standard, legislation allowing monopolistic conmbiations in the export trade, in foreign investment and in overseas branch banking... and philanthropy through American Relief organisations and the Red Cross
84
**Rosenberg, Emily - Spreading the American Dream (Book)**
How did policymakers help forge the promotional state?
They indirectly subsidized the export sector through taxpayer-financed promotional bureaus and lending agencies. During two wars, they effectively nationalized key sectors of the economy and vigorously pursued foreign expansion, taking advantage of the temporary merger of public and private spheres to outmaneuver foreign competitors. They supported American producers' monopolies and price-setting cartels (though, of course, America's cartels were privately owned). They carefully nurtured domestically owned communications and transportation, making sure that foreign companies never dominated the technology or dissemination of information
85
**Thompson, J.A. - Woodrow Wilson (Book)**
How did Arthur Link challenge the notion of Wilsonian idealism?
Arthur Link challenged notion of Wilson as impractical idealist, claiming that he was prepared to use armed forces in order to achieve diplomatic objectives, recognised the relevance of material interests, and understood the concept of the balance of power.
86
**Thompson, J.A. - Woodrow Wilson (Book)**
How did Wilson attempt to use FP to win the election of 1916?
**He kept us out of the war**
Wilson's desire for political success in 1916 drove him toward supporting non-intervention "no action could be taken or at least usefully taken unless it received the support of the great majority. It was not so much a question of what was the right thing to do from the abstract view-point as what was the possible thing to do from the point of view of the popular condition of the mind"
87
What was introduced in 1918?
Sedition Act - May 1918 - 1000+ convictions including Eugene Debs (no indecent, profane, absusive or subversive comments against State)
88
What did Wilson pursue in WWI?
Peace without victory - 1917 - Critiqued European imperialism, militarism, and balance of power politics as the root causes of war - basically US from the fence criticising policy. Controversial - should US even say anything?
Progressives happy, Republicans not so - especially Lodge - Republicans extremely pro-allies - wanted peace with victory. Wilson takes badly, not eager to discuss what should come after the war publicly
89
How did Congress split on LoN?
Lodge realises he has to start fighting for the league he wants - commences public blitz against Wilson
Lodge begins public education, statements, lobbying for unilateralism - supremacy of Monroe, secure ability to leave, cannot have league decide on American politics
No public pronunciations until he returns with the treatyWilson returns with a different settlement - the treat imposed harsh terms on Germany, and Wilson was forced to present to the Senate a treaty that bore little resemblance to the ideal peace most Americans expected Falls short of Wilsonian, Progressive ideals
Article 238
Battalion of Death - William Borah - Irreconcilables - opposed to American involvement in the LoN - blanket
Most Senate Democrats support Wilson, but the Progressive movement splintered during WWI
90
What is critically important about the League decision?
Was not about isolationism - General majority for participation in league of nation - just concern about what kind of League
* main concern with participation was the famous Article X of the Covenant - taken to mean that the US Army would be called by the League - US Constitution only can provide right to declare war
91
What could be said about the charter of the UN?
Post-WWII - with the charter for the UN - not a vindication of Wilsonianism, but a vindication of Henry Cavil Lodge
92
Lloyd Gardner
* Continuity between TR and WW - both believed emphatically in the US global mission
* TR and WW had to compete with the emerging problem of overbearing corporate and sectional interests dominating politics (i.e. Populist party)
93
What does Fareed Zakaria contribute to the narrative?
Underexpansionism- national interests are determined by power. In US, this was determined by state rather than federal power. US State was weak in the 19th century - however this was changed by the Progressives in the early 20th.
94
What does Thompson argue about the nature of US neturality?
To some extent a recognition of the inherent heterogeneity of the population.
War equally was not seen in the first years to be a threat to trade. Much of commerce was channelled by Allied ships.
95
What was the double wish of the people which Wilson felt he was burdened with?
I wish with all my heart that I saw a way to carry out the double wish of our people, to maintain a firm front in respect of what we demand of Germany and yet to do nothing that might by any possibility involve us in the war.
