Behavioral Ecology Flashcards
(106 cards)
1
Q
Give an account of the Geological Time table.
A
- the earliest forms of live emerge about 4000-3500mya
- multi-cellular and soft-bodied organisms about 1500mya
- first hard-body fossils about 500mya
2
Q
Give an account of the 5 important stages mentioned in the lecture of the geological timetable.
A
- Precambrian up to 540 mya ago
- Paleozoic about 540 mya to 250 mya when the greatest extinction event in the history of the planet occurred
- Mesozoic as the age of reptiles, flowers, emerged, insects and pollinators which was about 250 mya to 65 mya ago
- K/T boundary at 65 mya
- Cenosozoic era occurred from 65 mya to present as the age of mammals
3
Q
Answer this MC Question - the MVP required for the long-term persistence of small-bodied animal species is approximately?
- 50
- 500
- 1000
- 2500
- 10000
A
- 2500
4
Q
Define the 6 main components of behavioural ecology
A
- optimal foraging
- territoriality
- sex and mating systems
- group living
- life histories
5
Q
What are some of the foraging decisions animals make?
A
- large and uncommon vs small and abundant
- soft vs hard
- plant vs animal
- sweet and uncommon vs sour and common
- take the closest independent of quality
- travel further afield if food is higher quality
- be opportunistic? eat everything?
6
Q
What do you take on a 1 month camping trip but have to carry everything?
A
- take things with the highest calorically intake
7
Q
Define optimal foraging theory and the basic rules of optimizing choice of food/prey.
A
- preference for food/prey with the greatest NET energy gain – taking into consideration search time, pursuit time, and manipulation/handling time
- feed more selectively when food/prey is abundant
- include low quality food/prey only when profitable food/prey is scarce.
8
Q
What is an example of testing the OFT theory.
A
- how the Pied-wagtail optimizes maximum caloric intake per handling time
9
Q
How does the Pied-wagtail utilize the OFT theory?
A
- examined the amount of calories vs body length of target beetle and then again handling time vs the body length of the beetle
- trend indicates that calories per handling time reflects beetles slightly smaller than ones which have the highest calorically intake
10
Q
What is the importance of food quality and what components is most critical?
A
- food differs intrinsically in its quality, ie. AA, fatty acids, salts, vitamins, trace elements
- see example of potatoes, fries, and chips
- see example of meat and rice
- sodium
11
Q
What are the implications of sodium intake in a diet?
A
- sodium is the primary extracellular ion with major role in body fluid volume, acid-base balance, tissue, pH, muscle function and nerve synapse
- combat the daily loss of salt
12
Q
What do animal species do to combat this daily loss of salt?
- give examples
A
- terrestrial plants are typically deficient in salt, therefore will seek out salt licks
- bison will alter their migration paths to follow salt licks, since it is essential in milk production to sustain the calves
- caribou and elk do the same thing
13
Q
Explain the relative contribution of both aquatic and terrestrial plants to moose diet.
A
- terrestrial plants offer high calories, low moisture and low sodium levels
aquatic plants offer low calories, high sodium levels and high moisture - based on a number of constraints, energy intake amount vital, while stomach constraint in how much can be eaten is restricted by the minimum sodium constraint leaves a moose with a small window to have their optimal diet – causing concern for areas where they actually graze and the predation risk they face because of it
14
Q
So why do caribou, elk and moose move along the coast?
A
- grazing along the coast support the hypothesis that based on a salt hunger, it is necessary to graze along the coast searching for aquatic plants to compensate for salt deficiencies in the winter and from terrestrial plants
15
Q
Explain the parameters of patch foraging. and typical questions to ask.
A
- so if the food occurs in patchy distribution in patches of different sizes:
- how long do you spend in each patch?
- what about when you exhaust all the food in one patch before moving on?
- do you leave after some arbitrary time?
16
Q
What are the two basic rules to optimize foraging time among these patches?
A
- concentrate foraging activity in the most productive patches and ignore patches of low productivity (if they are known)
- stay with the patch until the profitability falls to a level equal to the average for all foraging patches combined
17
Q
How does one maximize efficiency in foraging?
A
- the decision is based on search success in each patch
- the shorter the travel time ti the patch, the less time will be spent in the patch
- need to find the optimal balance in time spent traveling to and in the patch against the cumulative net food gain
18
Q
Explain the relationship between foraging time and risk of predation.
A
- species run the risk of predation based on hunger and time spent in search of food.
19
Q
Define territoriality.
A
- exclusion of resources use by others through display, advertisement or active defense of an area
20
Q
Under what species is territoriality common?
A
- common in predators (African lions, cheetahs, domestic cats, hyaenas, bears, wolves, eagles, hawks, and owls), most birds during nesting, numerous fish species during reproduction, social insects (ants, wasps, bees), and dragonflies
21
Q
Define the home range in territoriality.
A
- the area over which an animal travels in search of food/mates/resources and which is not defended – present in the majority of animals
22
Q
Explain the different territories experienced by the black-capped chickadee and the mountain chickadee.
A
- they are examples of INTRAspecific territoriality but not INTERspecific territoriality
- since the different species of chickadees have different needs, foods
23
Q
What influences the size of a territory?
A
- body size, aggressive behaviour, habitat quality, population density, competition with others, ability to share resources
24
Q
What relationships were examined with the territory size and density of the Great Tit?
A
- a density manipulation experiment was performed
- the size of the territory was a function of other competitors
25
Review the Cost-Benefit Graph
Review the Cost-Benefit Graph
26
What is some common points about asexual reproduction?
- offspring are genetically identical to parents
- common in bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes
- common in plants and numerous aquatic invertebrates
27
What is the best predictor of Asexual Reproduction in animals?
- they will have short lifespans, constant with the environment
28
What are some unique features to asexual reproductive species, and types of species?
- some asexual species can switch to sexual reproduction at certain stages in their life histories (environmental stresses)
- females of a sexual species occasionally switch to asexual reproduction following changes in life history (eg. no other individuals of the species encountered)
29
What term describes a sexual species occasionally switching to sexual reproduction? give an example.
- parthogenesis
| - zebrashark
30
Define sexual reproduction and name the two types of it.
- occurring in most species on the planet
- genes from M and F combine to form new genotype different from both the M and F
- in changing or different environments, new genotypes may have higher reproductive output than either parental genotypes
- DIOECIOUS
- MONOECIOUS
31
Define DIOECIOUS sexual reproduction
- two houses or two sexes
- male and female organs are on separate individuals
- most species with usually the same/equal sex ratio
32
Define MONOECIOUS sexual reproduction
- one house
- male and female organs on the same individual
- either bisexual or hermaphrodite
33
Define the two types of monoecious sexual reproduction
- simultaneous hermaphrodite where both sets of reproductive organs at the same time -- widespread in plants and invertebrates
- sequential hermaphrodites where male and reproductive parts develop at different time during ontogeny
34
Give an example of sequential hermaphrodites.
- Juvenile and subadult wrasse are genderless
- the one female is the 2nd largest and holds the beta position
- the male is the largest and holds the alpha position
- experiments to remove either the beta or alpha will see genetic and morphological changes of the next biggest fish to take over the vacant role
- this is done to maximize the ability to have genetic different from self
35
What does the term mating structures entail? - what are the three types of mating structures?
- this refers to who a male and a female will mate with and why this is so
- panmixis
- polygamy -- where there is polygyny and polyandry
monogamy
36
Define panamixis and give examples of them.
- is the unrestricted random mating
- all opposite sex individuals in a population are potential partners
- sexes usually look alike (monomorphic)
- examples are marine invertebrates and most marine schooling fishes like spawning herring
37
Define Polygamy and the two subcategories of it.
- refers to many marriages or simply multiple partners
- it is widespread among most species
- sexes usually look different from each other (dimorphic)
- males are typically larger with more elaborate ornamentation
- ex. attenborough bird
38
Explain what PolyGYNY is and the two types of it observed
- the example of mating with many females, males mate with many females while the females will only mate with one or a few males
- it is common in amphibians, reptiles, songbirds, mammals
- may either be 1. female defense polygyny or 2. resource defense polygyny
39
Explain the two different types of Polygyny observed.
1. female defense polygyny will have individual males defending a group of females - common in elephant seal, sea lions, deer and primates
2. resource defense polygyny will have individual males defend resources (territory) which females will seek out -- common in fish and songbirds
40
Explain what polyANDRY is and some examples of it.
- where there are many males, females are the ones who mate with many males but males will mate only with one or a few females
- females compete for males a defend resources
- females can be more brightly coloured than the males
- males incubate the eggs and then become sexually inactive
- ex. shorebird species
41
What is rare and unique about monogamy in nature?
- it is the one marriage with a partner, high fidelity to a single partner
- rare, with exceptions in carrion beetle, most sea birds, swans, hawks, beavers, weasels, wolves.
42
What do these species have in common: carrion beetle, most sea birds, swans, hawks, beavers, weasels, wolves? a distinctive attribute?
- both sexes typically look similar (monomorphic)
- the young require extensive care
- both parents are usually required to raise the young -- where any sort of abandonment by either parent may result in losing the entire litter/brood
43
What is EPC and why is this prevalent in nature?
- extra-pair copulations
- genetic fingerprinting data for birds and mammal species indicate offspring of "monogamous" couples are often sired by more than one father (polygamous)
44
Define mate choice.
- the tendency for an individual to be selective in whom they choose to mate with
45
Why is mate choice critical in nature, for either gender in particular. And why would they be choosier?
- most species, females invest more than the males into reproduction and are responsible for most reproduction care
- fitness (survival, lifetime quality) of offspring is influenced by their genetic make up... so this is a function of how females choose their mates
46
Why would females be choosier in mate choice?
- since the fitness cost of making a wrong choice is greater than that of males (limited number of eggs (roughly 400 in a lifetime) vs unlimited number of sperm (roughly 200 million sperm per ejaculate))
47
How do females and males differ in increasing their fitness?
- females maximize genetic quality and genetic variability by mating only with the genetically superior males
- males maximize their number of fertilized eggs by mating with as many females as possible
48
What are the outcomes for males and females approaching fitness differently?
- males advertise to females and engage in competition with other males for access to the females
- females makes mate choices based on multiple criteria
49
What are the 7 types of Mate Choices females can make
- nuptial gift
- dominant/strong male preference
- handicapped male hypothesis
- parasite-free male hypothesis
- symmetrical male hypothesis - bilateral species
- display evaluation (females evaluate quality, complexity, and coordination of display)
- Inbreeding avoidance
50
Why does it mean males provide a nuptial gift to a female?
- a male will provide a "gift" (of resources, food items, territory) to the female in order to solicit matings
females use the characteristic of the "gift" to determine the "quality" of the male
51
What are the three types of nuptial gift methods we examined in lecture, and the 3 examples of them?
- a prey item by the Hanging Fly
- a foraging opportunity in obtaining resources by the Thynnine wasp
- a foraging opportunity in territory by the male song birds
52
What is so unique in the case of the Hanging Fly's mate choice?
- despite only having a micro brain the female fly makes critical decision while mating
- a male will provide a prey item as a nuptial gift to solicit mating, depending on the size of the item there will be a correlating period of how long copulation will last
- further, based on the item provided and the length of copulation, the female will decide on the number of sperm allowed to be transferred
53
What is so unique about the case of the Thynnine Wasps nuptial gift
- in this example, the female is large and flightless and requires transport from males to move from flower to flower, she releases pheromones to attract males and will solicit mating based on criteria
- the probability of the male mating is a result of his ability to carry the heavy female to different flowers, the female makes this decision during the flight
54
What is unique about the Male Song birds method of nuptial gifts?
- males provide the female with a foraging opportunity for females and young in a territory it defends from other males during breeding season
- males differ in their ability to establish and maintain a territory, performed through singing and advertising
55
How do female songbirds evaluate mate choice?
- based on the length and complexity of his song as this is correlated with territory size
- high quality males contribute to parental care a territory defense
- this characteristic is present in thousands of song bird species
56
What is the challenge with parental care and mate choice?
- in many animal species, males do NOT provide any obvious resources to the female thus the female must require other methods of evaluating male quality
57
Explain the example of Elephant Seals and mate choice.
- genetic quality is now a reflection on the dominant and strong male preference by females
- experiment examined the lifetime success of male reproductive success based on their rank
58
Explain the example of the Damselfly/Dragonfly and the interesting find in the study.
- males engage in arial combat with other males with the winners performing most of the mating
- the successful males traits was not the size of the male victor, but rather the size of the abdomen, which is a reflection of the fat content and energy reserves built up
59
What is the key take away from the Damselfly and Dragonfly example?
- if any aspect of the male success is heritable, female increases genetic quality of the offspring by mating with the winner
60
What is the catch of nuptial gifts, male size, strength, energy reserves or behavioural dominance?
- in many species these factors are NOT important in mate choice by the females which brings into question the new hypothesis - handicapped male hypothesis
61
Explain the handicapped male hypothesis, and the 4 examples seen in lecture (Zahavi).
- rooster, peacock, hornbill, elk
- the expression of elaborate displays by males that are COSTLY TO PRODUCE AND COSTLY TO MAINTAIN provide the female with the greatest reliable information on the genetic quality of the male
- if the male can survive to adulthood with such a HANDICAP it is an HONEST signal of fitness
- there is a low possibility of cheating
62
Explain the parameters of the Widow-bird experiment.
- a male widow-bird establishes a territory and courts more than one female in this area
- males tend to have a tail, as a handicap, which reduces feeding agility and predator evasion -- each tail differing in length
- is tail length a factor in female mate selection
63
Explain the findings of the Widow-bird experiment. Based on two predictions
1. Choose males with short tails as this should indicate increased flight ability, foraging ability and predator evasion
2. choose long tails as this should indicate the best genetic quality in that males survived to adulthood despite this handicap
- females selected the male with elongated tail while selection for the short tailed males dropped significantly
64
Explain the criteria for mate choice in the: Parasite-free male hypothesis (Hamilton and Zuk)
1. individuals differ in in their susceptability to disease such as parasite and pathogens, many which can lead to mortality in young
2. resistance to disease (immunocompetence) has a heritable component
3. males with NO parasite may have better immunological genes and improved physiological ability
4. bright nuptial displays are physiologically costly to produce -- frigate bird
5. females choosing brightly coloured males are providing their offspring with advantageous genes that yield better resistance to disease
65
Give an example experiment of the Parasite-free male hypothesis.
- male pigeons have natural lustre in their feathers, however the presence of an ectoparasite reduces this lustre
- there is the proposed inverse relationship of increased lustre will have decreased lice, therefore the conclusion of higher immunocompetence to the lice which is favourable to the females
- experiment treated males with insecticide and left males with the lice, female preference for the clean males sky rocketed
66
Explain the importance of the Symmetrical Male Hypothesis in Mate Choice.
- minor errors during embryological development and growth may result in slight asymmetries in structures (developmental instability)
- stress, pollutants, parasitism, homozygosity, poor genotype can each lead to slight asymmetries
- with these asymmetries being costly if they affect performance
67
What are examples of the symmetrical male hypothesis seen in lecture? Is there any evidence that asymmetry is an important mate choice?
- excellent genotypes can correct many asymmetries during embryological development and growth (developmental homeostasis) and produce more symmetrical characters
- peacock feathers, elk horns, monarch butterflies, birds, cheetahs, fish
- the article of "Female preference for symmetrical vertical bars in male Sailfin Mollies"
68
Explain the barn swallow experiment.
- an example of symmetrical male hypothesis
- male barn swallows with asymmetrical tails were less favoured by females than symmetrical males
- when an asymmetric male was made symmetrical by trimming the tail, they were favoured by females
- this behaviour is observed in insects, fish, birds, and mammals
69
Why is display evaluation a criteria for mate choice?
- females evaluate the quality, complexity and coordination of the display
- ex. spider, Greebs
70
Why would organisms have a mechanism to avoid inbreeding?
- avoid homozygosity
| - inbreeding itself is rare
71
What mechanism do animals use to avoid inbreeding?
- they will detect genetic kinship based on body odour (pheromones)
- roughly 30 genes coding for a special protein in cell membranes which are essential for our immune system (Class 1 and Class 2) Major Histocampatability Complexes
72
What is so unique about the genes that produce MHC proteins? in relation to inbreeding in animals? what is unique in match choice?
- a homozygotes produce only one type protein
- a heterozygote can produce two different proteins
- in populations each individual in the population has a unique genotype
- these MHC molecules bind specific receptors and have distinct odours
- females prefer males with the most dissimilar odour to themselves (preference for the most dissimilar genotype)
73
Explain the example experiment on humans and mate choice and inbreeding. one exception?
- females ranked most positive of males odour that are genetically most dissimilar to themselves and most unpleasant the smell of males genetically most similar to themselves
- measured odour, decision and blood sample with MHC content of each individual
- only exception, is when a female was on the pill, where similarity is favoured when the body is tricked to think it is pregnant
74
Explain the general finding of the paper: New perspective on mate choice and the MHC.
- general preference expressed for MHC-dissimilar mates, therfore MHC-disassortive mating help maintain MHC and genome wide diversity in natural populations
- strength and direction of MHC-based mating varies greatly and modulated by genetic background, sex, and early life experience
75
MC Exam Question
| - Major Process which increases genetic variability in a SMALL population is?
- immigration
| - find answer in the notes
76
MC Exam Question
| - The major feature of the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis is?
- bright plummage indicates good immunocompetence
| - find the 5 features to this hypothesis
77
What are 5 advantages to Group Living?
- increased search efficiency
- increased capture efficiency of large prey
- increased detection of predators
- increased defense against predators
- selfish-herd theory (dilution effect)
78
In the following examples why would each species prefer solitary vs social living arrangements?
- wolf vs fox
- lion vs leopard
- caribou vs moose
- diet dependent: require large numbers to target larger prey sizes will foxes survive on smaller prey
- hunting preference and strategies, leopard hunting from trees
- moose are typical forest dwellers, thus numbers are typically restricted in numbers
79
Give examples of the first examples of advantages of group living.
- increased food search efficiency
| - ex. seed detection in songbirds, fish detection in sea gulls
80
Give examples of the second examples of advantages of group living.
- increased capture efficiency
- ex. African Wild dogs, wolves, lions
- as the pack size increases, the net kJ/per day per dog will increase once a certain threshold in size is reached as larger prey can be targeted
81
- Give examples of the third examples of advantages of group living.
- increased detection of predators (the many eyes theory)
- the attack success of a hawk decreases as the flock size of pigeons increases
- loss of surprise
82
Give examples of the fourth examples of advantages of group living.
- increased defense against predators
- ex. mobbing by song birds and owls
- ex. musk ox semicircle formation to protect themselves against wolf predation
83
Give examples of the fifth examples of advantages of group living.
- selfish-her theory (dilution effect)
- each individual is looking out only for themselves
- ex. wildebeest, pronghorn, flamingos, herring
- Belted kingfisher - evolved in fish example from solitary existence percentage of hunting success, decreases in a pool of other fish
84
What are 3 reasons why it is disadvantageous to living in a group. Where can I find more information?
- sharing limited resources and resource depletion
- increased transmission of parasites
- conflicts/stress
- see article in lecture; do animals living in larger groups experience greater parasitism?
85
Give an example where conflicts and stress are a disadvantage to group living.
- Yellow-eyed Junco
- examining the percent of time each individual spends at an activity, predator scanning, fighting, feeding
- As the flock size increased fractionally more time is spent fighting, and significantly less time predator scanning, there was definitive increase in time feeding as there was more competition for resources now
86
Explain the model of Optimal Flock Size - maximizing feeding opportunities - if additional predators added
- see figure on slide 19 (ask for clarification)
87
Explain the model of Optimal Flock Size - maximizing feeding opportunities - if there are a decline in resources
- see figure on slide 20 (ask for clarification)
88
Define life histories.
- set of rules and choices as to how much energy is allocated to an individuals schedule of reproduction
- reproductive effort is the total allocations that an individual makes for reproduction
89
What are the two categories of reproductive effort? what is a key note to make about these two?
- r selected
- K selected
- they are relational categories rather than absolute
90
Explain what r-selected reproductive efforts are with examples.
- is exponential growth
- high number of eggs, offspring, seeds
- high population growth potential
- boom or bust cycle
- usually short-lived
- tuna or rodents
91
Explain what K-selected reproductive efforts are with examples.
- limited to the carrying capacity of the habitat
- low numbers of eggs or offspring
- low population growth potential
- stable populations
- usually-long lived
- dogfish shark or bears
92
What are the 5 components that dictate life histories of species.
- categories of reproductive effort (r vs K selected)
- frequency of reproduction
- occurrence of parental care (absent, precocial, altricial)
- clutch size and litter size in K-selected species
- age of first reproduction (generation time)
93
What is the second category of life histories, 2 types, and examples used in lecture for each.
- the frequency of reproduction
- semelparous, single reproduction seen in most insects, cephalopods, salmon
- iteroparous, repeated reproduction (usually yearly) seen in most plants, molluscs, most fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals or in STEELHEAD salmon
94
What is the third category of life histories, the three types mentioned.
- occurrence of parental care (rare in many invertebrate taxa, uncommon in many fish species such as, sharks, herring, salmon, tuna, and uncommon in amphibians and reptiles)
- it is more common in social insects (bees, termites, ants), common in small fish, dinosaurs (birds) and all mammals
- the amount of parental care varies among similar groups
- the two types are: preocial and altricial
95
Define the two types of parental care for life histories.
- Precocial (no care) seen in the Semipalmated plover
- Altricial (lots of care) where the young are seen as helpless and require extensive care, as seen in social insects (bees, ants, termites), orcas, most birds and all mammals like chimps, polar bears, elephants
96
What is the fourth category of life histories and who defined the term, and what it implies.
- clutch/litter size in K-selected species
- how many eggs/young can a female have? variation within and among species
- all bird species lay fewer eggs in the nest than they are capable of doing
- David Lack (1948) said clutch size represent the MAX number of young that parents can successfully raise
- this implies they have the capacity to assess future opportunity
97
Explain the first experiment testing Lack's Hypothesis using the collard flycatcher.
- clutch/litter size in K-selected species, where the clutch is artifically enlarged from 4 into 5
- all 5 were fledged (raised till flight), and the activity of the chicks and the parents were compared to the normal clutch size responses
- Chicks from the enlarged clutch were: had reduced survival in the first winter and reduced egg production as adults
- parents from the enlarged clutch were: had reduced survival overwinter and reduced egg production the following year
98
Explain the example of the Canada Goose, who do not feed their young in the artifically enlarged clutch experiment of Lack's
- in this experiment the clutch was artifically enlarged from 4 to 5 and the response of the chicks and parents were observed.
- chick survival was similar to the normal clutch size
- parents had delayed molt and delayed migration
- parents had reduced weight the subsequent year, WHY?
- females bred later than normal the following year
99
What implications can be made based on Lack's hypothesis, what is it, what category is it in for Life Histories, and what implication can be made?
- clutch/litter size in K-selected species
- both the Collard flycatcher and Canada goose can lay twice as many eggs are what they actually but don't do it
- the hypothesis is: clutch size represents the maximum number of young that the parents can successfully raise
- thus it is implied that, clutch size corresponds to the maximum number of offspring that the parents can raise WITHOUT A NET REDUCTION IN THEIR FUTURE REPRODUCTIVE EFFORT
100
What is the fifth and final category in life histories, give the two examples looked at between fish, birds and mammals.
- age of first reproduction (refers to the generation time)
- fish: guppies of 3 weeks vs Greenland shark of 50-100 years
- birds: songbirds of 6 months vs albatross of 6-10 years
- mammals: mice of 3 weeks vs elephants, whales and humans of 13 years
101
What is one key note to make regarding age of reproduction?
- in most plants and most fish, fecundity (number of eggs) is positively correlated to body size?
- check with the prof!!!
102
Give and explain an example where two genotypes with different generation times are compared over 12 years.
- species AA reproduces after 2 years, laying 10 eggs while species AB reproduces after 3 years, laying 30 eggs
- most effective method is to draw it out in a table with year, species AA, species AB and count out how it looks
103
Answer these questions with examples from the notes:
- when is it useful to reproduce as early as possible
- when is it useful to delay reproduction
- Mule deer in BC, will reach adult size in 3 years and reproduce BUT subadults can reproduce at 2 years but will have they're body growth reduced during pregnancy and their maximum body size wont be reached in subsequent years
- that means, in winter there is a higher mortality rate of smaller adults because snow maneuverability it harder for smaller sizes and are easier prey for predators
- thus, there is a genetic predisposition for early pregnancy to be REMOVED from the population
104
Explain the importance of the mule deer example in BC
- there is a trade-off between present reproductive output and future reproductive success
- in the absence of predators***
105
See the Table on slide 30, for the summary of life history attributes associated with r and K strategies.
See MC exam question
106
What are some essential features of the Scientific Method in ecology?
- they must be testable, and in principle be falsifiable as well
- these scientific processes evaluate hypothesis and these experiments do not need to provide PROOF of a hypothesis
- results are either CONSISTENT WITH or INCONSISTENT WITH a hypothesis
