Behavioural science and socio-cultural psychiatry Flashcards

Question

Freud's topographical model of the mind (3)

Answer 1

Conscious Preconscious Unconscious

Answer 2

The Id The Ego The Superego

Answer 3

- Personality develops through different psychosexual developmental stages. - The stages are based on biological drives that are hypothesised to underlie certain psychological processes - Personality traits result from fixation at one of the stages of development, resulting in defence mechanisms characteristic of that stage

Answer 4

Oral (0-1.5) Anal (1.5-3) Phallic (3-5) Latent (5-12) Genital (12+)

Answer 5

**The ego** - the conscious mind. The thoughts, memories, and emotions a person is aware of. Largely responsible for feelings of identity and continuity. **The personal unconscious** **The collective unconscious** - a level of the unconscious shared with other members of the human species comprising latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past

Answer 6

Patterns found in the collective unconscious that help to organise our experiences and may be the root of fantasies, myths and symbols Central to Jungian psychology

Answer 7

Persona ('mask') Anima/animus Shadow Self

Answer 8

the outward face we present to the world. It conceals our real self and Jung describes it as the “conformity” archetype. This is the public face or role a person presents to others as someone different to who we really are.

Answer 9

the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women. Each sex manifests attitudes and behaviour of the other by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche of a woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the psyche of a man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype).

Answer 10

the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud). It is the source of both our creative and destructive energies. In line with evolutionary theory, it may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival value.

Answer 11

provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung, the ultimate aim of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to self-actualisation)

Answer 12

'Psychosocial development': Argued that while Freud's emphasis on internal impulses was not incorrect, cultural/environmental influences contribute much more to the development of personality than internal impulses.

Answer 13

Trust vs mistrust (0-1) Autonomy vs shame (1-3) Initiative vs guilt (3-5) Industry vs inferiority (5-12)

Answer 14

Identity vs role confusion (12-19) Intimacy vs isolation (19-35) Generativity vs stagnation (35-65) Integrity vs despair (65+)

Answer 15

**techniques employed by the ego to protect itself from anxiety and danger** Anna Freud defined the first nine defence mechanisms in 1936 They are unconscious and habitual. They may be normal and adaptive, or pathological. Some are seen as more mature and others more primitive.

Answer 16

Level I - Pathological (psychotic) Level II - Immature Level Level III - Neurotic Level Level IV - Mature

Answer 17

This approach considers the development of personality in light of a) the structure of the mind (including the unconscious) and b) the formation of defence mechanisms. The key idea is that we are often unaware of the true motives behind our actions. Key theorists: Freud, Jung, Erikson

Answer 18

Cognitive psychologists are interested in how cognitions influence behaviours. Personality is considered to be strongly dependent on environment (our parents or the culture we have grown up in) and less to with life experiences. Key ideas: -mental schemata -social perception -attribution theory -cognitive-social learning theory -imitation

Answer 19

a mental structure of preconceived ideas a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organising and perceiving new information

Answer 20

BF Skinner (1904-1990) argued that personality is just a perceived pattern with no basis within the individual. Mental states are inaccessible to scientific study and are therefore irrelevant to understanding behaviour. All behaviours are determined by experience and explainable through classical and operant conditioning.

Answer 21

developed by Hathaway + McKinley (1943) Personality inventories are completed by the patients themselves. 567 self-statements, answered as 'true', 'false' or 'cannot say' Covers mood, physical concerns, and social attitudes

Answer 22

Assess psychological preferences in terms of how individuals perceive the world and make decisions. Based on Jung's notion that individuals tend to use 4 principal psychological functions to experience the world.

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Judging - Perceiving Extraversion - Introversion Thinking - Feeling Intuition - Sensing ('JETI')

Answer 24

Standard techniques used to gain information about an individual using open-ended questions. Derive from psychodynamic views and attempt to explore intentions and desires that may be unconscious. Useful in gaining a 'first impression', but considered less reliable.

Answer 25

Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Sentence Completion Test Draw a Man Test

Answer 26

The subject examines 10 inkblots on a page and is asked to identify designs and shapes.

Answer 27

30 black and white pictures of people in ambiguous situations are presented to the subject, who is asked to create a story around them.

Answer 28

The subject is provided with the first part of an uncompleted sentence and is asked to complete the sentence in their own words.

Answer 29

Subject is asked to complete three separate drawings - a man, a woman, themselves. They are then asked to draw a whole person (head to feet) without any further instructions

Answer 30

Self-report methods of assessment with a restricted response format, including ordinal scale ratings or True/False questions.

Answer 31

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) NEO Personality Inventory Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

Answer 32

measures 16 primary traits and the 'Big Five' secondary traits assumes that personality is multi-levelled and hierarchical

Answer 33

A range of psychometric tests have been developed to measure the 'Gigantic Three': - Maudsley Medical Questionnaire (MMQ) - Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) - Revised Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPQ-R) - Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP)

Answer 34

2 parts: - Self-administered screening questionnaire - Semi-structured interview

Answer 35

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Social learning theory

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The acquisition of a new (learnt) behaviour as a result of the association of two stimuli. Usually involves innate or autonomic responses.

Answer 37

a boy used in John Watson's experiments, demonstrating classical conditioning. Little Albert enjoyed playing with a white rat. Whenever he saw the rat, Watson banged two metal bars behind his head, causing distress. After a while, Albert became distressed when seeing the rat (even without the noise)

Answer 38

Before conditioning: * -food (unconditioned stimulus , UCS) * -salivation (unconditioned response, UCR) * -bell (neutral stimulus) After conditioning: * -bell (conditioned stimulus, CS) * -salivation (conditioned response, CR)

Answer 39

Once a conditioned response has been learnt, other stimuli can be added to the process e.g. shining a light before the bell

Answer 40

The traditional model of classical conditioning. Neutral stimulus (bell) is presented first, **0.5s** before UCS (food). Both stay together until the response develops.

Answer 41

Neutral stimulus (bell) is presented but then removed before the UCS (food) is presented. Thus a memory trace is conditioned to lead to the conditioned response.

Answer 42

The UCS (food) is presented before the neutral stimulus (bell). This model is often used in advertising.

Answer 43

Both the neutral stimulus (bell) and UCS (food) are presented at the same time. Less effective than forward conditioning.

Answer 44

Some stimuli are more prone to conditioning than others e.g. we are more likely to develop a fear of insects/snakes than cars. Most likely an evolutionary remnant.

Answer 45

The extension of the conditioned response from the original conditioned stimulus to other similar stimuli. e.g. Little Albert became afraid not only of white rats but also other white/furry objects.

Answer 46

It is possible to use classical conditioning to enable a person or animal to learn to discriminate between two stimuli. For instance, if a dog is conditioned to salivate to a black card after several trials, an experimenter may introduce white cards, which are not reinforced with food. In doing so, the dog will learn to associate the black card with food, but not the white, and hence will discriminate between the two and only salivate to the black.

Answer 47

**A process whereby the response to the initial unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus is heightened, despite the two not being paired together repeatedly.** For instance, after just one exposure to the rat and the loud bang together for Little Albert, he could have been exposed just to loud bangs repeatedly (in the absence of the rat). In incubation (unlike extinction) this could lead to a heightened fear response when exposed to the rat again.

Answer 48

The process whereby the conditioned response (for instance salivation) will disappear if the conditioned stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented without the expected food. Essentially the association between the bell and the food diminishes.

Answer 49

This is the **return of the conditioned response, after a period of extinction.** After a period of no association between the two, apparently at random, the previously conditioned stimulus can evoke the earlier conditioned response again.

Answer 50

Teaching a different task or behaviour than the one that was previously occurring in a situation. For example, a dog lunges at the window when the postman walks by. The new task will be sitting quietly.

Answer 51

Instrumental conditioning

Answer 52

**the tendency of an action to occur depends on the effect it has on the environment.** Basically this means that actions that have pleasurable responses are strengthened, whereas actions which lead to discomfort are less likely to recur.

Answer 53

Learning is dependent on an animal learning to operate in some way to make a change that leads to a consequence.

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A stimulus/event that **increases** the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.

Answer 55

The performance of an action/behaviour is strengthened by a **pleasant consequence** e.g. food or money for good homework.

Answer 56

The performance of an action/behaviour is strengthened by the **removal of an unpleasant stimulus** e.g. Skinner's rats learnt that pressing a lever would stop an electric shock

Answer 57

**Primary reinforcers** - those that are necessary for survival e.g. warmth, water, food **Secondary reinforcers** - those we have learnt to value e.g. wealth, possessions

Answer 58

a stimulus/event that decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated

Answer 59

A behaviour is reduced by **adding an unpleasant stimulus**

Answer 60

A behaviour is reduced by **removing a pleasant stimulus**

Answer 61

Reward is given after a behaviour is repeated a fixed number of times

Answer 62

Reward is given after a varying number of actions (e.g. slot machine). *Yields highest response rates and is most resistant to extinction*

Answer 63

Reward is given after a fixed period of time, regardless of the number of completed responses in between

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Reward is given after a variable time interval

Answer 65

Learning as a result of unpleasant consequences (punishment)

Answer 66

An animal learns to perform a behaviour in order to escape or end an aversive stimulus (essentially another way to describe negative reinforcement)

Answer 67

Avoidance conditioning is similar to escape conditioning. The difference is that a CS is given before the presentation of an aversive stimulus. For example, a light may precede the shock by a few seconds. What does the animal do under this new setup? At first, its behavior is no different than it was for escape conditioning. Namely, it jumps the barrier when the shock is delivered. Soon, however, it begins to jump before the shock. It jumps when the light comes on and thus avoids the shock.

Answer 68

aka successive approximation a way of adding behaviours to a person's repertoire. Some approximation of the target behaviour is reinforced, until eventually the new behaviour emerges. e.g. playing 'hot and cold' to lead a person to look for an item under the couch

Answer 69

A series of behaviours (a behaviour chain) is reinforced. Each link in the chain provides the cue for the next, to eventually produce a reinforcer. The reinforcer is provided only at the end of the chain. e.g. saying the alphabet, or step by step making a cake Forward chaining - A-Z Backward chaining - Z-A

Answer 70

Classical and operant conditioning do not provide an exhaustive description of the way people learn. Humans also learn by observing and **modelling** those around them (particularly as children).

Answer 71

Bobo doll experiment

Answer 72

Contrary to behaviourism, cognitive learning theorists argued that learning is not simply a a passive process, but instead relies on the active acquisition of new knowledge. **New understanding drives behavioural change**, not just simple association.

Answer 73

Application of learning theory to phobia. In CBT, the patient rates the level of anxiety (termed the 'subjective units of distress') they would experience in relation to different encounters with a feared stimulus, e.g. touching a spider, seeing a picture of a spider. They then rank these from least to most distressing.

Answer 74

Patient was **gradually exposed to feared stimuli** by progressing up the anxiety hierarchy, while performing **relaxation techniques**. This was based on the principle of *reciprocal inhibiition*.

Answer 75

The notion that two contrasting feelings (e.g. relaxation and anxiety) cannot coexist. e.g. if a child is scared of a dog but is comforted while sat on their mum's knee, then the fear response will diminish.

Answer 76

Contrary to systematic desensitisation and the principle of reciprocol inhibition, CBT does not use relaxation techniques. The focus is simply on **progressive movement up the anxiety hierarchy**, assuming that maintained levels of anxiety are unlikely to last for long (**habituation**).

Answer 77

The phenomenon whereby there is a decrease in response to a stimulus over time.

Answer 78

Rather than confront the feared stimulus in a graded way, the patient is asked to **start at the top of their anxiety hierarchy** e.g. holding a spider, and remaining in this situation until their subjective state of anxiety diminishes. Relies on the process of habituation.

Answer 79

The situation at the top of a patient’s anxiety hierarchy is **imagined** by the patient, with the aid of a therapist, who will talk them through and describe the feared encounter (with potentially even more horrid scenarios added).

Answer 80

Seligman Dog's were delivered electric shocks and could not do anything to prevent this. These dogs, in another scenario, learnt to escape the shocks much more slowly than other dogs. Seligman argued that people with depression similarly learn to become helpless. This is challenged with **behavioural activation**.

Answer 81

a concept in operant conditioning. parents use this regularly - in order to engage with a more desired activity (going out to play), a child must first complete a less desired activity (tidying up).

Answer 82

Nominated tokens are are awarded for a desired behaviour. When a specified target is reached, the tokens can be exchanged for an agreed reward (the reinforcer). e.g. star charts for children

Answer 83

The principle that an environmental stimulus (conditioned stimulus) leads to the return of a conditioned response. e.g. in a smoker who used to smoke with alcohol, returning to the pub with friends may increase the craving for cigarettes

Answer 84

an undesired behaviour is coupled with an unpleasant response e.g. drinking alcohol is coupled with flush reaction secondary to disulfiram

Answer 85

Aversion therapy that relies on mental imagery rather than an actual occurence.

Answer 86

**Long term memory (LTM)** * Declarative (explicit) * Semantic * Episodic * Non-declarative (implicit i.e. cannot be accessed consciously) * Classical conditioning * Priming * Procedural **Short term memory (STM)** * Declarative (explicit) * Working memory

Answer 87

Registration (encoding) Storage Retrieval

Answer 88

**Sensory memory**, aka 'sensory buffer store' or sensory storage **Short-term memory**, aka 'primary memory' or short-term storage (STS) **Long-term memory**, aka 'secondary memory' or long-term storage (LTS)

Answer 89

The retention of sensory inputs long enough to decide if further processing is required Modality-specific e. g. - iconic memory system - stores visual images - echoic memory system - stores sounds

Answer 90

0.5 seconds

Answer 91

Working memory

Answer 92

Central executive Visuospacial sketchpad Phonological loop Episodic buffer

Answer 93

**7 +/- 2** (based on digit span experiments) This can be expanded by '**chunking**' - combining units of information into chunks e.g. 1-9-7-9 into the date '1979'

Answer 94

Experimental method used in testing short-term memory to overcome maintenance rehearsal (repetition). -subjects hear 'trigrams' (groups of three letters) -they are asked to repeat what they just heard. They then have to count backwards - this stops rehearsal.

Answer 95

Ranges from things occurring within the last few minutes to events spanning a lifetime Unlimited capacity

Answer 96

**Forms** * **voluntary** (active process) * **involuntary** (automatic recall) **Modes** * **recognition** (navigating familiar routes) * **recall** (actively searching memory stores) * **reintegration**/**reconstruction** (recollection of past experiences e.g. eye witness testimony)

Answer 97

Chunking Imagery Mnemonics Primacy/Recency effects 'ChIMP'

Answer 98

Component of working memory responsible for attention and higher cognitive processes e.g. planning and problem-solving Capacity-limited, but modality-free 'In charge' of slave systems e.g. phonological loop/visuospacial sketchpad

Answer 99

Dorsolateral prefrontal lobe

Answer 100

Component of working memory that stores speech-based information It is a verbal rehearsal loop e.g. remembering your pin number by repeating it to yourself Memory traces fade after about 2 seconds

Answer 101

Dominant parieto-occipital hemisphere

Answer 102

Component of working memory that stores visual and spacial information. e.g. map reading and navigation

Answer 103

Non-dominant parieto-occipital regions

Answer 104

Component of working memory, added by Baddeley in 2000 to his original model. Thought to act as a backup store, communicating with components of the working memory and long-term memory. It is proposed to be a multi-modal store of limited capacity that integrates information from the other systems.

Answer 105

An information processing model whereby information flows through each memory component: * a stimulus is found by the sense organs * it passes to the sensory memory * if attention is paid, the information is passed to the STM * if it is rehearsed, the information is passed to the LTM

Answer 106

Subjects tend to remember items from the beginning and end of a series when presented with a list. **Recency effect (STM)** - words at the end of list are recalled first **Primacy effect (LTM)** - words at the beginning of a list are recalled better than words in the middle Provides evidence for the multi-store memory model

Answer 107

Autobiographical memories of our past experiences. Operates in a spacio-temporal context, including details of time and place.

Answer 108

A form of episodic memory. Clear and distinct recollections of significant personal or global events. A high level of emotional arousal at the time the event was committed to memory.

Answer 109

The structures associated with --- are located bilaterally in the limbic system and medial temporal lobe. Collectively they are known as the 'circuit of Papez'.

Answer 110

Memory loss for verbal material (neural region)

Answer 111

Memory loss for spacial (non-language) memory (neural region)

Answer 112

Autobiographical memories are not distributed equally across the lifespan - they peak between the ages of 10 and 30,

Answer 113

The store of general, factual knowledge about the world, including concepts, rules and language. It is organised conceptually, without reference to the time and context in which the information was acquired.

Answer 114

A form of non-declarative memory. Learning without conscious recall of learning. Exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus e.g. introducing the colour blue to a person to help them recognise the word 'sea'.

Answer 115

A form of non-declarative memory. Knowledge of how to perform skills.

Answer 116

Concerns the representation of knowledge in semantic memory. The theory argues that previous knowledge is stored as schemas, and that the schemas play a role in how we represent and organise new knowledge in memory. Lacks experimental evidence but is generally accepted

Answer 117

Empirical plot of the rate of forgetting. Ebbinghaus tried to memories nonsense syllables and retested himself over a period of 31 days. There is a sharp drop in recall over the first 9 hours, after which the rate of forgetting slows and declines little thereafter, even after a lapse of 31 days.

Answer 118

Forgetting is never complete Actively recalling information during the test period will increase the likelihood of remembering the information Continuous motor skills (gymnastic routine) are not forgotten; discrete skills (striking a golf ball) are. Learned skills need to be refreshed over time

Answer 119

A theory of forgetting Proposes that structural change (formation of an engram) occurs in the brain when something is learnt and remembered. Breakdown of engrams by metabolic processes over time explains why we forget things. This theory has been discredited.

Answer 120

A theory of forgetting Once a memory has reached capacity, old information is displaced by new information. Explains forgetting in a limited-capacity system such as STM

Answer 121

A theory of forgetting Events that occur before and after learning are thought to influence forgetting

Answer 122

A theory of forgetting aka Repression Repression is the unconscious forgetting of painful memories in order to protect the psyche.

Answer 123

Recall is improved if the recall environment is the same as the learning environment

Answer 124

A theory of forgetting We forget things because the required cues are not available **Context-dependent forgetting** - occurs when required contextual or environmental cues are not available **State-dependent forgetting** - occurs when required physiological or psychological cues are not available

Answer 125

**Age-appropriate memory impairment (AAMI)** **Organic amnesias** * Delirium * Dementia * Amnesic syndromes * Short-term amnesias **Psychological causes**

Answer 126

People aged 70-74 perform 50% worse in objective memory tasks than those aged 35-44 **Non-verbal memory** and **delayed recall** are most affected AAMI affects 40% of individuals \>65

Answer 127

* Specific memory impairment **without loss of other faculties** such as speech, intelligence, reasoning. * **Intact short-term memory**; **unchanged implicit memory** * **Anterograde amnesia** - inability to create new memories * **Retrograde amnesia** - inability to recall information/events from just before the event/illness causing the amnesia

Answer 128

Medial temporal lobe amnesia Diencephalic amnesia

Answer 129

Bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobe and hippocampal system Limited retrograde amnesia, no confabulation

Answer 130

Bilateral damage to the medial thalamic area, mammilary bodies and hypothalamic areas. Marked retrograde amnesia, confabulation and lack of insight. Key example is Korsakoff's syndrome

Answer 131

**Time between initial head injury and recovery of memory.** Used to grade severity of head injury: * \<1h - mild * 1-24h - moderate * \>24h - severe

Answer 132

This law states that, in retrograde amnesia occurring after brain damage, recently formed memories are more impaired that older memories

Answer 133

memory disturbance lasting several hours. most common in middle-aged men the cause is thought to be by temporary loss of function of the limbic-hippocampal circuits

Answer 134

Brief, recurring episodes of amnesia caused by underlying temporal lobe epilepsy

Answer 135

aka motivated forgetting; dissociative amnesia First described by Freud - forgetting that occurs after traumatic events, possibly by repression

Answer 136

Contrary to amnesia, this refers to **incorrect memories**, often psychogenic in origin.

Answer 137

Retrospective falsification

Answer 138

False memory

Answer 139

Screen memory

Answer 140

falsification of memory in clear consciousness due to an organic pathology

Answer 141

Pathological lying Occurs without brain pathology, usually in individuals with certain personality types e.g. antisocial, hysterical

Answer 142

A type of pathological lying where an individual presents to hospital with a false illness --- by proxy occurs when an adult presents to hospital (usually their child) with a fictitious illness

Answer 143

'Approximate answers' The patient may understand the question but try to avoid the correct answer

Answer 144

**A forgotten memory returns but is not recognised as a memory.** The individual then believes it to be an original thought. e.g. a 'new' jokes that has in fact been heard many times before

Answer 145

the patient recalls as remembered an event or idea that is clearly delusional in nature

Answer 146

Exaggerated registration, retention and recall Examples: - flashbulb memories - flashbacks that occur in PTSD

Answer 147

Tests for auditory, verbal working memory. Patients are given sequences of numbers to remember (forwards and backwards). Normal range: * **forward: 6 +/- 1** * **backward: 5 +/- 1**

Answer 148

recall three items (from MMSE) name/address recall (from ACE-R) Formal tests: * **Ray Auditory Verbal Learning Test**

Answer 149

**Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF)** the individual is shown a drawn figure. it is then covered up and they are asked to redraw it.

Answer 150

Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI)

Answer 151

**The focussing of consciousness on an experience.** Voluntary - the subject focusses themselves Involuntary - an event attracts the subject without their conscious effort

Answer 152

The act of maintaining attention upon an experience.

Answer 153

The state of active attention by high sensory awareness.

Answer 154

A physiological and psychological state of active attention by high sensory awareness Involves activation of the reticular activating system in the brain stem, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system

Answer 155

This law states that performance increases with arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases. This is represented graphically with an **inverted U-shaped curve.**

Answer 156

- anabolic (building of organs/tissue) - controlled lowering of metabolism, temperature, blood pressure, HR and RR - predominates in the **first third of the night** - quantity related to time of commencement of sleep, peaking at 23:00

Answer 157

- autonomic instability (variability in heart rate, respiratory rate, and BP) - muscle atonia - fragile in the face of stresses - majority of dreaming - predominates in the **final third of the night** - important for learning, brain development, information processing

Answer 158

Electrooculography (EOG)

Answer 159

Electromyogram (EMG)

Answer 160

Actigraphy

Answer 161

Polysomnography (PSG)

Answer 162

The alteration of the structure of sleep during the first night in the sleep lab.

Answer 163

**Time from sleep onset to first REM.** Should be around 90 mins. Increased by first night effect. \<60mins suggest a major affective disorder.

Answer 164

Time from sleep onset to first NREM episode.

Answer 165

total sleep time/total time in bed x 100

Answer 166

Multiple sleep latency test

Answer 167

Maintenance of wakefulness test

Answer 168

Stanford Sleepiness Scale

Answer 169

Paradoxical sleep This is because the EEG in REM sleep is similar to the waking EEG (low voltage \<50microvolts, high frequency \>8Hz)

Answer 170

**1-4Hz** Frontally in adults, posteriorly in children Slow wave sleep and in babies. Should not be present when awake, when present if awake this strongly suggests pathology

Answer 171

**4-8Hz** Generalised Young children, drowsy and sleeping adults, with certain medications, meditation. Small amount seen in awake adults, excessive amount when awake may indicate pathology

Answer 172

**8-12Hz** Posteriorly When relaxed and when the eyes are closed (whilst awake)

Answer 173

**12-20Hz** Frontally When busy or concentrating

Answer 174

(aka **sleep spindles**) **12-14Hz** Frontal and central regions Bursts of oscillatory activity that occur in stage 2 sleep. Along with k-complexes they are the defining characteristic of **stage 2 sleep**

Answer 175

**30-100Hz** No specific areas Meditation

Answer 176

**REM sleep - 25%** **NREM sleep - 75%** * I * II * III * IV (III and IV are known as '**slow wave sleep**')

Answer 177

5% Theta waves

Answer 178

45% K complexes Sleep spindles

Answer 179

12% \<50% Delta waves

Answer 180

13% \>50% Delta waves

Answer 181

Locus coeruleus

Answer 182

Pineal gland

Answer 183

Ascending reticular activating system (brainstem) Posterior hypothalamus

Answer 184

Increase testosterone, growth hormone and somatostatin at start of sleep Reduced cortisol at start of sleep Reduced melatonin in REM sleep Increase prolactin in early morning sleep

Answer 185

In dream interpretation (psychoanalysis) this is what is actually dreamed.

Answer 186

In dream interpretation (psychoanalysis) this is what the dream is said to represent.

Answer 187

**Any biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours.** Examples - body temperature, hormone secretion, sleep-waking. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous ("built-in", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called zeitgebers (from German, "time giver"), which include light, temperature and redox cycles. Without external influence (including light), humans 'free run' with a period of 24-25.5 hours.

Answer 188

An extrinsic factor (e.g. sound from a neighbours flat) that sets the timing of a circadian rhythm

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**Circadian rhythm** * suprachiasmatic nucleus * pineal gland (producing melatonin) **Homeostasis** * VLPO * arousal system (ascending reticular activating system)

Answer 190

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus

Answer 191

Ventrolateral preoptic nuclei (VLPO)

Answer 192

Disorder of unknown etiology characterized by **excessive sleepiness** that typically is associated with **cataplexy** and other REM sleep phenomena, such as **sleep paralysis** and **hypnagogic hallucinations**. Repeated episodes of naps or lapses into sleep of short duration (usually less than one hour). The patient typically sleeps for 10 to 20 minutes and awakens refreshed but within the next two to three hours begins to feel sleepy again, and the pattern repeats itself. There may be sudden and irresistible sleep attacks in situations where sleep normally never occurs (e.g. during an examination or while eating). A history of **cataplexy** is a characteristic and unique feature: - sudden loss of bilateral muscle tone provoked by strong emotion. most commonly begins in the second decade, with a peak incidence around 14 years of age.

Answer 193

**'Sleeping Beauty Syndrome'** Most commonly seen in adolescent boys * **Hypersomnolence** - increased need for sleep * **Hyperphagia** - tendency to eat any food in sight while awake * **Emotional and behavioural problems** - irritability and aggression --------------------------------------------------------------- The symptoms often appear abruptly, remain for a few days to weeks and then disappear. This is usually followed by a period of normality followed by another episode. This pattern can repeat for years with a gradual reduction of severity over time. In between episodes, those affected appear to be in perfect health with no evidence of behavioural or physical dysfunction. The cause is unknown. Outcome is reported to be good with the majority of people making a full recovery.

Answer 194

Sleepwalking * Usually occurs during N3 sleep, during the first third of the night. * M\>F, children more than adults * More common in depressed patients * There is a genetic component * Association with enuresis

Answer 195

Imipramine

Answer 196

Teeth grinding

Answer 197

Night terrors * usually occurs in N3 (NREM) sleep, early in the night * sudden arousal with fright * patient cannot recall any dream * most common in children 3-5 yrs

Answer 198

Hallucination occurring when going to sleep *'-gogic' - GOing to sleep*

Answer 199

Hallucination occurring on waking

Answer 200

aka **prison psychosis**, described in 1898 Symptoms - approximate answers, clouding of consciousness, somatic conversion features, (pseudo)hallucinations ICD-10 lists it in F44.8 - other dissociation (conversion) disorders

Answer 201

Condition of disordered consciousness. Actions may be performed without conscious volition and without recall afterwards Occurs in epilepsy (esp temporal lobe), head injury, hysteria, schizophrenia, illicit substance intoxication

Answer 202

James Braid (1795-1860)

Answer 203

Certain properties of an object make it easier to distinguish as a separate entity: * Contour (having a clearly defined outline/boundary) * Size * Orientation * Symmetry

Answer 204

Rubin's vase an image where the perception can change as one looks at it, without any change to the sensory stimulus

Answer 205

when you look at two very similar pictures but don’t spot small changes in them

Answer 206

**Sensation** is the process that begins with information being received by sensory receptors, which then transmit this ‘data’ (in the form of neural impulses) to the brain. The brain interprets this as sound, touch or taste. **Perception** is how we make sense of – or find meaning in – the sensory information reaching our brains. It relies heavily on previous experience, memory, emotion, motivation and other psychological factors. For example: ‘I am listening to Bach’s cello suite no.1 in G.’

Answer 207

aka **conceptually-driven processing** this is the view that our perceptions are the end result of ‘higher up’ processes, making inferences about what things are like. This means we perceive them 'indirectly', drawing on our existing knowledge and expectations of the world

Answer 208

this is the view that **perception is stimulus-driven** (as opposed to attention-driven), and involves processing information in a more 'direct' manner, essentially determined only by the information presented to our sensory receptors

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the phenomenon of the brain's ability to focus one's auditory attention (an effect of selective attention in the brain) on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli

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Max Wertheimer Kurt Koffka Wolfgang Köhler.

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'The whole is other than the sum of its parts' – Kurt Koffka The word 'gestalt' roughly translates from German to ‘form’ or ‘shape’, and refers to an organised whole. Gestaltists see the mind as active and constantly seeking meaning.

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Max Wertheimer (Gestalt psychologist) rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is none

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the central law of Gestalt psychology it that states that **'every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible'.** (Etymology: 'Pragnanz means 'pithiness', from the German for concise and meaningful)

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*"Some Psychiatrists Can Frighten Small Children"* * Similarity * Proximity * Closure * (Common) Fate * Symmetry * Continuity Gestaltists believe our abilities to perceive in these ways are inborn. They are referred to as 'nativists'

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**Binocular** * Retinal disparity * Stereopsis * Convergence **Monocular** * Accommodation * Motion parallax * Light and shadow * Angular declination * Object overlap

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A binocular process important for depth perception Our brain analyses the images formed in each eye and uses the differences between them to judge distance.

Answer 217

A binocular process important for depth perception The brain merges the two images from each eye so we see a more solid image.

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A binocular process important for depth perception The eyes move inwards as the viewed object gets closer, the degree of inward movement is analysed by the brain and used to figure out how close or far something is from us.

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A monocular process important for depth perception The lens changes shape with distance.

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A monocular process important for depth perception This is when objects closer to us appear to move faster than those in the distance A good example is trees seen from a moving train, which seem to flash by when closest to the track.

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A monocular process important for depth perception The further an object on the ground is, the higher in the field of view it looks, with an object at infinity being seen at the horizon. The visual system uses this fact, the angular declination below the horizon, for distance judgement

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A monocular process important for depth perception If one object in the visual field is seen to overlap another, the first object can usually be judged to be closer than the second object.

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Test of depth perception in children Originally devised in the 1960s by Gibson and Walk A baby was encouraged to crawl across a transparent surface, including over a region that looked like a ‘drop’ (i.e. there was a real change in depth of the level of the ‘ground’ below the transparent surface) about mid-way across. Babies that hesitated at this point or did not crawl over it were presumed to have acquired depth perception Studies have suggested babies as young as **3 months old** show evidence of recognising the apparent change in depth.

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a phenomenon of visual perception in which a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise dark or featureless environment appears to move.

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Richard Gregory - 'Constructivist theory' According to this theory, retinal images are sketchy and cannot explain the complex and fully formed perceptions that we experience. Perception is best defined as a process of using information known already to formulate and test a hypothesis.

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Originally described in 1955 by top-down theorist Gordon Allport Refers to **an individual’s way of interpreting a stimulus/stimuli being influenced by pre-existing cognitive biases**. For example, aspects of an individual’s personality or emotional state may influence how visual information is actively filtered or interpreted

Answer 227

Edward Colin Cherry - British cognitive scientist 'The ability of people to be able to switch their attention rapidly to a non-processed message'. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- In 1953, Cherry noticed that people had the ability to focus on one conversation at a party, despite all the other stimuli, such as background noise and other conversations carrying on simultaneously. Cherry discovered that the background noise is not consciously processed, and demonstrated this using the dichotic listening task.

Answer 228

Different messages are sent to each ear via headphones and the person receiving them is asked to repeat one message. This is called **shadowing**, where focusing on one message causes the other message to be neglected

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The phenomenon in a dichotic listening task where focusing on one message causes the other message to be neglected

Answer 230

Donald Broadbent (1958) The model suggests that information is stored in the short-term memory before going through a filter, which selects the relevant stimulus to focus on. The relevant stimulus is then processed centrally. Short-term memory is often referred to as the ‘sensory buffer’ in this model

Answer 231

Treisman (1964) ‘**Attenuators**’ are *sequential cognitive processes that decide whether or not to allow the information to go through to the next attenuator to be analysed for relevance*. Each attenuator will analyse a different component of the information (e.g. source, words, pitch). Information will either not be used, and therefore lost, or will make it to the working memory to be used. e.g. hearing your name in the background noise of the room, recognising a face in a busy street

Answer 232

Controlled processing is conscious Automatic processing is unconscious

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'say the colours of the word and not what the word says' This test demonstrates automatic processing in competition with controlled processing It is used to test executive function

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the process of being able to attend to an important stimulus despite trying to attend to another It is a concept in Treisman's attenuation model of information processing, which can be seen as an extension on the Broadbent's filter theory

Answer 235

**'language shapes thought'** Linguistic categories and usage influence thought as well as certain kinds of non-linguistic behaviour. ---------------------------------------------------- This was tested on people from the Dani tribe of New Guinea (whose language only has two words for colour - dark and light) and people from North America. They were tested on their speed of colour recognition.

Answer 236

a mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities that have common properties.

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a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool.

Answer 238

'short cuts' In the early 1970's, Tversky and Kahneman argued that humans make use of cognitive heuristics (short cuts) which reduce the complexity of making probabilistic judgments These are very useful but can lead to systematic errors. ------------------------------------ Examples: representativeness, availability, anchoring-and-adjustment, framing

Answer 239

Representativeness bias

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Availability heuristic

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Anchoring-and-adjustment

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Paul Ekman (1972) * Surprise * Happiness * Anger * Sadness * Fear * Disgust *'Some Happy Animals Still Fear Death'*

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a **subjective experience** (e.g. I feel sad, I feel happy) a **physiological state or change in state** (e.g. sweating, heart racing or 'butterflies in my stomach') a specific **behavioural response** (e.g. freezing, crying, laughing). ------------------------------------------------------------- Much of the research and debate relating to the study of emotions concerns the inter-relationship of these three components as well as the role of cognitive evaluations in the process.

Answer 244

'frightening stimulus -\> physiological response -\> subjective experience of fear' the physiological response to perceptions is the cause of emotional experiences *'we are afraid because we run' - William James*

Answer 245

'frightening stimulus leads, independently/simultaneously to: - \> physiological response - \> subjective experience of fear' the physiological state is not a necessary precursor for an emotional response. Rather, the felt emotion and physiological changes occur at the same time and independently following a perception.

Answer 246

the 'thalami theory' - thalamus -\> cortex (conscious emotional experience) - thalamus -\> hypothalamuis (physiological response)

Answer 247

'frightening stimulus -\> physiological response -\> cognitive evaluation of the physiological response -\> subjective experience of fear' Emotions are the product of two factors: 1. a change in our physiological state, of which we become aware 2. a cognitive evaluation of that change with respect to what is happening around us. --------------------------------------------- e.g. if your heart is racing and you're about to have an exam you label yourself as afraid, but if your heart is racing and your about to kiss your boyfriend/girlfriend you label your emotional state as excited

Answer 248

'stimulus -\> evaluation of stimulus as frightening -\> subjective experience of fear -\> physiological response' our evaluation of our perceptions determines the resulting emotional response i.e. thought and appraisal of the situation occur before the emotional response ----------------------------------------- Explains why you are not as likely to run away from a bear in a zoo as you might be if you encountered the animal in the wild – somehow you have determined that there is no danger in this situation and the emotional response associated with fear does not occur.

Answer 249

Clark Hull This theory posits that basic needs, such as a need for energy or sleep, produce an internally experienced sense of tension that motivates behaviour. This physiological need state is called a 'drive'. Primary drives fulfil needs that are essential for survival, e.g. hunger. Secondary drives are acquired through social learning process and in association with primary drives. For example, dominance might help to satisfy basic drives for food.

Answer 250

**Extrinsic models** suggest that behaviour is motivated by external reward or the avoidance of punishment. **Intrinsic models** suggest that some behaviours are rewarding in themselves and motivation is internally generated.

Answer 251

Festinger, 1962 People strive for their thoughts and feelings about things to be consistent with each other and with their behaviour. This is called cognitive consistency. If one thought contradicts another thought, feeling or behaviour, this is referred to as cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that contradiction creates an uncomfortable internal tension that motivates change.

Answer 252

David McClelland (1917–1998) behaviours could be reduced to realising three social objectives: 1. Need for achievement (mastery and control of skills) 2. Need for affiliation (effective relationships with people) 3. Need for power (exerting an impact on others/environment) These are personality traits measured in the Thematic Apperception Test

Answer 253

expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimise or tolerate stress and conflict

Answer 254

**appraisal-focused strategies** * the person deals with their distress by implementing a change of mindset and reappraises the situation * e.g. fighting the fear of flying by comparing it to less scaring situations that yield a higher risk, such as driving **problem-focused strategies** * the individual activates strategies to deal with the cause of the problem * e.g. gathering information on the problem, generating alternative solutions, weighing up alternatives in terms of costs and benefits, implementing the selected alternative and learning new skills to manage a particular problem **emotion-focused strategies** * these aim to deal with the negative emotions that accompany a problem/stressor, and to prevent them from overwhelming the individual. This involves releasing repressed emotions. * e.g. meditation and systematic relaxation strategies, management of emotional hostility and releasing repressed feelings

Answer 255

Lazarus (1999) This model describes 3 stages in the coping process: 1. **Primary appraisal** the individual evaluates the stressor 2. **Secondary appraisal** the individual evaluates the resources and options available to manage the stressful situation 3. **Coping** the individual chooses and uses a strategy to cope with the stressor

Answer 256

National Adult Reading Test (NART)

Answer 257

a non-verbal test of general intelligence. In each test item, one is asked to find the missing pattern in a series. Each set of items gets progressively harder, requiring greater cognitive capacity to encode and analyze. ----------------------------------------------------------- There are 3 different tests for different abilities:- * **Coloured Progressive Matrice**s (younger children and special groups) * **Stanford Progressive Matrices** (average 6 to 80 year olds) * **Advanced Progressive Matrices** (above average adolescents & adults)

Answer 258

First formal IQ test introducted before WWI in 1905 Measures intelligence across 5 factors of cognitive ability: fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory. Both verbal and nonverbal responses are measured.

Answer 259

(WAIS) is the most famous and commonly used intelligence test in clinical practice. It can be used for people between the ages of 16 and 90.

Answer 260

* Verbal Comprehension Index * Perceptual Reasoning Index * Working Memory Index * Processing Speed Index The results are presented as two scores:- * Full Scale IQ (based on the score of the four index scores) * General Ability Index (based on scores from verbal comprehension and perceptual reasoning ----------------------------------------------------------- The average score is 100 with a standard deviation of 15 (85-115). A score of 100 puts a person on the 50th centile (50% of people score above and 50% score below). It becomes less accurate at the extremes of IQ (70-130).

Answer 261

Verbal comprehension

Answer 262

Perceptual reasoning

Answer 263

Working memory

Answer 264

Processing speed

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learned predispositions to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way towards a given object, person or event they are based on **beliefs** and **values**

Answer 266

Thurstone scale Likert scale Semantic differential scale

Answer 267

A measure of attitude * a list of hundreds of statements relating to a particular issue * each statement is assessed by a panel of judges and given a score (on an 11-point scale) regarding how negative or positive the statement is regarding the issue * individuals are then given the statements and asked to answer whether they agree or disagree with each statement * a person who disagrees with all the items has a score of zero. * the advantage of this scale is that it is an interval measurement scale

Answer 268

A measure of attitude Respondents are asked to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements. Each scale item has 5 response categories ranging from **strongly agree to strongly disagree.**

Answer 269

Osgood A measure of attitude a **seven point scale** with the end points of the scale associated with bipolar labels. ======================== For example one might wish to compare a group of individuals by an aspect of their personality such as dominant or submissive (bipolar labels). Each individual could have any score from 1 (submissive) to 7 (dominant) with a score of 3-4 being neutral.

Answer 270

**Self-consciousness** awareness of the self distinct from objects in the environment. Only humans are thought to possess full self-consciousness **Self-image** 'who are you?' - one's description of social roles (social self), personality traits and physical characters (bodily self) **Self-esteem** personal judgement of worthiness. Self-image is descriptive, self-esteem is evaluative **Ideal self** what we would like ourselves to be

Answer 271

'Touching the dot' experiment aka Rouge Test (Gallup)

Answer 272

A red dot is placed on a child's face, the child is put in front of a mirror. The child touches its face to find the dot, indicating self-recognition. - Children \< 15months do not touch the dot - 5-25% of infants touch the dot by 18 months - 75% touch the dot by 20 months

Answer 273

3.5 - 4.5 years

Answer 274

a mental process by which we explain the behaviour of others as well as our own behaviour. We explain behaviour by assigning causes or ‘attributes’ to it.

Answer 275

Fritz Heider (1958) a person acts like a scientist or psychologist in a naive way, when trying to understand and explain behaviour. **People tend to see cause and effect relationships for all behaviour**, even when there is none. ================================================= For example, when we see an angry man, we think: ‘*The man is angry because he is bad tempered*.’ or ‘*The man is angry because something bad happened*.’

Answer 276

**consensus** (the extent to which others behave in same way) **consistency** (the extent to which a behaviour is stable) **distinctiveness** (the extent to which the same behaviour occurs in other situations).

Answer 277

**Locus** * **Internal** - Joey failed his exam because he didn't study * **External** - Joey failed his exam because he did not have a good teacher **Stability** * **Stable** (**permanent**) - Joey is always weak in maths, so he didn't study * **Unstable** (**transient**) - Joey did not study because he was sick **Controllability** * **Controllable** - Joey went to a party before his exam, so he didn't do well * **Uncontrollable** - Joey failed the exam because it was difficult

Answer 278

Fundamental attribution error (correspondence error) Actor-observer effect Self-serving bias Just world hypothesis False consensus effect

Answer 279

An attribution error that occurs when we place more emphasis on internal or personal explanations rather than taking the external circumstances into consideration.

Answer 280

An attribution bias - people believe that the world is a just one, where good people deserve to have fair things happening to them. * When something bad happens to someone, the conclusion is that they have done something bad to bring this upon themselves * e.g. during a tsunami disaster when people died, the victims were blamed for choosing to live in a disaster-prone area. * Basically our belief in the ‘just world hypothesis’ is to avoid fear, as it can be frightening to think that bad things can happen to good people.

Answer 281

the tendency for actors and observers to make different attributions to the same event - the actor/agent attributes external causality (I drove badly because I am late) - observers of the same behaviour atrribute internal causality (He drove badly because he is reckless)

Answer 282

***the human tendency to attribute success to internal factors but failure to external ones*** - **self-enhancing bias:** if we are involved in something positive, we take full credit for our success without acknowledging the situational factors e. g. if we are on time for a meeting we appreciate our planning and organisation skills - **self-protecting bias**: When we are involved in something negative, we blame our failure on something external to us e. g. if we arrive late at a meeting, we might blame it on a traffic jam

Answer 283

The tendency to view another person's behaviour as representative of a group's behaviour (cultural/racial stereotypes are thus formed)

Answer 284

the tendency to perceive others has wholly good or bad based on few observed traits a cognitive bias whereby the perception of one characteristic of a person or object is influenced by the perception of another e.g. judging a good looking person as more intelligent ======================= reverse halo effect is known as 'devil effect'

Answer 285

Barnum effect aka Forer effect

Answer 286

Hawthorne effect

Answer 287

Pygmalion effect aka Rosenthal effect

Answer 288

the ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc. — to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.

Answer 289

**1st order false belief tasks** involved inferring one person's mental state e.g. what Jim thinks **2nd order false belief tasks** involve inferrring one person's thoughts about another person's mental state e.g. what Jim thinks Varun thinks Usually passed by age 6 in typically developing children

Answer 290

(Genital retraction syndrome) Origins: China, Malaysia, Indonesia Men affected with Koro are terrified that their penis is shrinking and that eventually it will be absorbed into their body. People with Koro believe it is fatal.

Answer 291

Origins: Malaysia and Indonesia Latah usually affects middle aged women. A typical attack of latah lasts 30 minutes and is characterised by an outburst of screaming, hysterical laughing and obscenities.

Answer 292

Origin: West Africa Brain fag is seen in stressed out West African students and is thought to be a response to a western style of education and exams. Symptoms include poor concentration, and unusual somatic sensations such as burning skin.

Answer 293

Origin: Malaysia People who suffer with Amok are suddenly overcome with a violent outburst and become very aggressive to those around them. This continues until they are overpowered at which point they fall into a deep sleep and upon waking have no recall of the event. It almost always affects males.

Answer 294

Origin: India Men affected with Dhat believe they are passing semen in their urine which leads to a loss of physical and mental energy. aka: Jiryan, Shenkui

Answer 295

Origin: Native North America Windigo presents as an intense desire for human flesh and a strong believe that one is turning into a cannibal.

Answer 296

Origin: Eskimo societies Piblokto is seen in Eskimo's. Affected Eskimo's develop hysteria and behave oddly for instance by rolling around in snow naked while muttering to themselves.

Answer 297

a culturally defined Latino syndrome usually triggered by acute stress and typically characterised by paroxysms of uncontrollable shouting and crying, trembling, palpitations, and aggressiveness.

Answer 298

French and Raven (1959) Legitimate power Referent power Expert power Reward power Coercive power

Answer 299

Legitimate power

Answer 300

Referent power

Answer 301

Expert power

Answer 302

Reward power

Answer 303

Coercive power

Answer 304

Outcome power

Answer 305

Social power

Answer 306

Counterpower

Answer 307

Irving Janis (1972)

Answer 308

a phenomenon that occurs within a group of people, in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an incorrect or deviant decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimise conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative ideas or viewpoints.

Answer 309

* The group must be **isolated** from outside influences. * **Group loyalty** prevents individuals from raising controversial issues of alternative solutions. * There is a **loss of individual** creativity and independent thinking. * The group experiences the '**illusion of invulnerability**,' an inflated certainty that the right decision has been made. * Typically the group is under a **high level of pressure** to make a decision * The group **lacks an impartial leader.**

Answer 310

* Leaders should allow each member to **challenge ideas and present objections** * Members should talk about and solicit ideas with **people outside the group** * **Outside Experts** should be invite to attend meetings * Avoid expressing opinions about the preferred outcome * Assign '**Devil's Advocate**' at all meetings to challenge any and all ideas

Answer 311

Groupshift

Answer 312

Deindividuation

Answer 313

Freud believed that aggression arose as a result of a primary instinct called **thanatos** (aka the **death instinct**). He suggested that each person had this drive which aimed to cause total destruction and death. He also suggested that there was an opposing instinct called **eros** (the **life instinct**). He described **catharsis**, which is a process of discharging libidinal energy and making us feel calm. Catharsis occurs when we watch an aggressive act or are involved in a mildly aggressive act.

Answer 314

Following his study of birds, Lorenz suggested that **aggression is instinctual**, and **occurs in response to biological stimuli** and follows predictable rules. He also believed that aggression was vital to ensuring a balance in the animal kingdom and that stronger genes were selected. ================ His major work (completed in 1963) is titled 'on aggression'.

Answer 315

Genovese Effect a theory which states that **the likelihood that a person will help in a particular situation is directly related to the amount of people present in the situation.** A person is far more likely to help should they be in a small number of witnesses.

Answer 316

There are many other people Perpetrators are present The costs of intervention are physical (rather than non-physical) When the situation is perceived as dangerous

Answer 317

They are male When the bystanders are not strangers

Answer 318

Ringelmann effect the phenomenon whereby people exert less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone

Answer 319

disorders more common in lower social classes * Schizophrenia * Personality disorder * Alcohol dependence * Major depression disorders associated with higher social classes * Anorexia nervosa

Answer 320

``` Social class 0 - Unemployed or student Social class I - Professional Social class II - Intermediate Social class III - Skilled, manual, or clerical Social class IV - Semi-skilled Social class V - Unskilled ``` (Office of Population Censuses and Surveys)

Answer 321

a scoring system developed by British GP Brian Jarman measures the level of social deprivation in a community, using census data on: * % of old people living alone * single-parent families * children younger than 5 years of age * unskilled and unemployed persons * ethnic minorities * overcrowded dwellings * changes of address in previous year generally not accepted outside the UK

Answer 322

Mechanic and Volkart (1961) describes the way in which symptoms are perceived, evaluated, and acted upon by a person who recognises some pain, discomfort or other signs of organic malfunction

Answer 323

Talcott Parsons Parsons described the sick role as **a temporary, medically sanctioned form of deviant behaviour.** He suggested that a sick person has **conflicting drives** both to recover from the illness and to continue to enjoy the 'secondary gains' of attention and exemption from normal duties.

Answer 324

The sick person: * is **exempt from the normal social roles that the person takes for the duration of the illness.** This exemption is legitimised by society as represented by the physician. Normal role performance and responsibilities are suspended so that the ill person can get well. The strength of the exemption varies directly with the severity of the illness. * **is not responsible for their illnesses.** The illness is beyond personal control. A curative process outside the person is required to restore wellness. * **has the duty to try to get well.** Sickness is societally undesirable and thus society places the obligation to get well on the patient, with the help of the doctor, of course. * **must seek competent technical help** and co-operate with the caregiver.

Answer 325

Prochaska and DiClemente * **Pre-contemplation** The individual is not currently considering change * **Contemplation** Ambivalent about change, 'Sitting on the fence' * **Preparation** Some experience with change and are trying to change, 'Testing the waters' * **Action** Started to introduce change * **Maintenance** Involved in ongoing efforts to maintain change

Answer 326

Reluctant pre-contemplators

Answer 327

Rebellious pre-contemplators

Answer 328

Resigned pre-contemplators

Answer 329

Rationalizing precontemplators

Answer 330

**occurs when a psychiatrist has a conflict of interests that interferes with their ability to act soley in the best interests of the patient.** In fact psychiatrists often find themselves acting in the interests of several parties (e.g. patient, family, society, hospital commsisioners etc) and this is refered to as multiagency. ===================== This is illustrated by the **Tarasoff case** in which two therapists failed to warn a lady that their patient expressed an intention to kill her. They chose not to do so as they wished to respect confidentiality and failed to see that they had a duty of care to the lady as well as the patient. The lady was eventually murdered by this patient. This case occured in California and resulted in a change in the law stating that therapists have a legal duty to both patients and potential victims.

Answer 331

Brown & Rutter (1966) developed to measure **expressed emotion** within families individual members of a family (including the patient) are interviewed 5 measures: * Critical comments * Positive remarks * Emotional over involvement * Hostility * Emotional warmth

Answer 332

The **paranoid-schizoid position** represents a state of fragmentation where the mind divides the world into good and bad. It is characterised by the defence mechanism known as 'splitting'. The **depressive position** follows the paranoid-schizoid position and is characterised by the ability to accept something can be both good and bad (ambivalence).

Answer 333

Brown and Harris (1978) * Three or more children under the age of 14 at home * Lack of an intimate relationship with a husband or boyfriend * Lack of employment outside of the home * Loss of a mother before the age of 11 years

Answer 334

Declaration of Geneva

Answer 335

Declaration of Helsinki

Answer 336

Declaration of Tokyo

Answer 337

Declaration of Malta

Answer 338

Declaration of Lisbon

Answer 339

Declaration of Ottawa

Answer 340

The Nuremburg code resulted from the trial of the German physicians accused of participating in war crimes and crimes against humanity (1946). Among the charges were that German physicians conducted medical experiments on thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent.

Answer 341

1. Voluntary consent 2. Research is intended for common good of the society 3. Avoidance of unnecessary pain and suffering is guaranteed for the subjects 4. Subject has liberty to withdraw at any point 5. Qualified researchers undertake research 6. Scientist must terminate a study if more harm is being caused than expected to the subjects

Answer 342

The Willowbrook school was a state supported institution for children with learning difficulties located in New York. During the 1960s a study was carried out there which involved the **inoculation of healthy children with hepatitis** and the subsequent administration of gamma globulin to assess for its potential to treat the disorder.

Answer 343

The Tuskegee syphilis experiment was a follow up study of people with syphilis. It is very controversial as **a significant proportion of those in the study were not informed of their illness** and did not receive available treatment even though it became available half way through the study. A report on the study called the '**Belmont report**' introduced many changes into US law on research ethics.

Answer 344

This study involved creating a simulated prison environment at Stanford University. 24 students were recruited who scored highly on measures of maturity and stability. Each participant was then assigned as either a prison or a guard. Participants were given no guidelines for how to behave, with the exception of the guards who were told not to use physical abuse under any circumstances. Within only two days, the participants literally became the roles they were assigned. The guards began to act very harshly and sometimes even cruel to the prisoners. While no one was physically hurt during the study, **a few of the prisoners displayed extreme emotional reactions that warranted termination of the study after only six days**.

Answer 345

This study (conducted by Humphreys) involved him hanging around 'tearooms' (public toilets where men meet to have sex) in order to study the population and learn more about the types of men that did it. It was the method however that was controversial rather than the topic. **He never disclosed his motives** when he interview the men and instead pretended to be a 'watchqueen'. This raised the issue of **informed consent** in research.

Answer 346

Study of authority and obedience The participants were told that they were participating in research on the effects of punishment on memory. Milgram studied the extent to which they were willing to deliver fake electric shocks to someone. Although Milgram expressed concern for the wellbeing of his participants, as some were showing extreme agitation, he decided not to terminate the study on the basis that each prior participant seemed to recover relatively well after his session ended.

Answer 347

Thomas Szasz R.D.Laing Michel Foucault Franco Basaglia

Answer 348

1. Death of spouse 2. Divorce 3. Marital separation 4. Jail term 5. Death of a close family member ========================================== 6. Personal illness 7. Marriage 8. Being fired from work 9. Marital reconcilitation 10. Retirement

Answer 349

Consequentialism Utilitarianism

Answer 350

Kantianism focused on actions themselves rather than consequences; suggest that there are moral rules and duties that should not be beached

Answer 351

focuses on being rather than doing. When faced with a moral dilemma, virtue ethics encourages people to do the right thing for the right reason. The emphasis is on moral character and what the decision says about this. ========== Virtue ethics (aka eudaimonism) describe the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behaviour. It focusses on the individual. It holds that the proper goal of human life is eudaimonia (aka the good life).

Answer 352

Beauchamp and Childress 1 Autonomy 2 Beneficence 3 Non-maleficence 4 Justice

Answer 353

Barton ========================= Apathy, lack of initiative, loss of interest and submissiveness. Factors attributed to this state include loss of contact with the outside world, enforced idleness, brutality and bossiness of staff, loss of friends and personal possessions, poor ward atmosphere and loss of prospects outside the institution.

Answer 354

**Working group** one that is working well and getting the job done **Basic assumption group** acting out primitive fantasies and preventing things from getting done

Answer 355

**Dependency** Here the group turns towards a leader to protect them from anxiety. **Fight-flight** Here the group acts as if there is an enemy who must be attacked or avoided. The enemy can be either within the group or external. The group may at times pursue and defeat the perceived enemy but will soon create another one. **Pairing**. Here the group acts as if the answer lies in the pairing of two of the members. This may be in the form of a friendly pairing or an extremely hostile one.

Answer 356

Goffman 1. All aspects of life are conducted in the same **premises** and under the same authority 2. Members' daily activities are carried out in the **immediate proximity** of a large group 3. All parts of a day's activities are strictly **scheduled** 4. A enforced activities are based on a single plan with the purpose of fulfilling the **aims of the institution**

Answer 357

**Betrayal funnel** Family and friends conspire against the ill person, reporting them to mental health professionals * *Role stripping** e. g. exchange of personal clothes for hospital issue **Mortification (civil death)** Personal activites go on public display; permission is required for basic activities **Privilege system** Privileges usually involve reductions in the institution's control over the patient

Answer 358

*'features of social life - networks, norms, and trust - that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives'* **Structural** components refer to roles, rules, precedents, behaviours, networks and institutions. These may bond individuals in groups to each other, bridge divides between societal groups or vertically integrate groups with different levels of power and influence in a society, leading to social inclusion. **Cognitive** social capital describes the values, attitudes and beliefs that produce cooperative behaviour.

Answer 359

the dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members

Answer 360

**Assimilation** - when individuals give up home culture and embrace the dominant culture **Integration** - maintaining the home culture but also embracing the dominant culture **Separation** - maintaining home culture and being isolated from the dominant culture **Marginalization** - giving up the home culture and failing to relate properly to the dominant culture

Answer 361

Assimilation

Answer 362

Integration

Answer 363

Separation

Answer 364

Marginalization

Answer 365

In discredited stigma, an individual assumes that their difference is already known about or is evident. In discreditable stigma, the person assumes that their stigma is neither known about by those present nor immediately perceivable by them

Answer 366

Felt stigma (internal stigma or self-stigmatisation) refers to the shame and expectation of discrimination that prevents people from talking about their experiences and stops them seeking help

Answer 367

Enacted stigma (external stigma, discrimination) refers to the experience of unfair treatment by others

Answer 368

This is stigma not felt directly. Often a carer or relative of a stigmatised individual may feel shame or be treated differently

Answer 369

Erving Goffman

Answer 370

Bandura's social learning theory is often seen as a link between behaviourism and cognitive psychology as he introduced a concept called reciprocal determinism - = people's behaviour is influenced by their environment but also their behaviour influences their environment.

Answer 371

Photographic memory

Answer 372

A persons ethnicity refers to their **identification with a particular group**, usually by common heritage but also often by language, culture, religion, or ideology.

Answer 373

This law states that that if 2 memories are of the same strength but different ages, the older will decay more slowly than the younger.

Behavioural science and socio-cultural psychiatry Flashcards

(416 cards)