Beliefs and Values Flashcards

Question

Reasons to believe in a soul

Answer 1

-Some people believe that Near death experiences prove that consciousness does not come from the brain. They would argue that consciousness survives death. Thus consciousness must come from the soul. Remembered past lives could be used to make a similar point. The Bible says that humans have spiritual souls

Answer 2

1. There is no hard evidence for a soul. No hint of a soul has ever been found in operations or dissections. 2. Evidence that is put forward for the soul is weak evidence because it is subjective and hard to repeat in controlled circumstances. 3. There is usually a clear possible rational explanation for things that are supposed to be evidence for the soul (like moral conscience, religious experiences and NDEs). 4. Belief in the soul is likely to just be wishful thinking. Feuerbach argued that religious belief in general was wish fulfilment.

Answer 3

In order to understand the parable, you need a certain amount of historical knowledge. At that time Jews and Samaritans did not get along with one another.

Answer 4

1. washes and binds the wounds of the injured man; 2. puts him on his donkey and leads the donkey to an inn (by doing so he takes on the role of a servant by leading the donkey and puts himself in danger of attack); 3. pays for his care at the inn and offers to pay whatever else the innkeeper spares.

Answer 5

Ignorance is not knowing or understanding the difference between right and wrong or what makes an action wrong. A person might be morally ignorant because they have never been taught right from wrong or because they lack the capacity to understand the difference between right and wrong.

Answer 6

-Most people in the west have far more clothes than they need and there are many shops that sell cut price cheap clothing. -for clothes to be available to the consumer at a cheap price they need to be produced as cheaply as possible. -The best way to keep prices down is to pay the workers who make the clothes as little as possible. -It was reported that up to a third of cotton workers in India may be children. -Most are not paid a fair wage, they do not work in safe conditions and they do not get an education.

Answer 7

-also be used to illustrate how selfishness can cause injustice. A different example would be the way in which the whites in South Africa (or segregated America) turned a blind eye to injustice that did not directly inconvenience them. Selfishness leads people to ignore the needs of others if they themselves are fine.

Answer 8

In 2010 two young brothers tortured and attempted to kill two cousins. their defence lawyer argued that they had a 'toxic family life' with a drug dependent mother and a violent father who beat their mother and them. They watched pornographic violent films. Child psychologist Dr Eileen Vizard said that they had no apparent ability to empathise. Brought up without boundaries and with no one teaching them right from wrong the brothers moral ignorance certainly contributed to their crime.

Answer 9

Scavenging and hoarding of materials or objects, theft and robbery, especially by means of violence, trickery, or manipulation of authority

Answer 10

we work on the assumption that we do have freewill. We make choices about how we behave and how we act and we think that we could have behaved in a different way in the same circumstances. When we praise or blame others for how they behave this implies that we believe that they are free to choose how to act and therefore they are morally responsible for the consequences. However, there are various reasons why we might argue that people are not free to choose how to act.

Answer 11

Your genes determine (cause) things like eye colour, hair colour and so forth. This is why children often physically resemble their parents. They have inherited certain characteristic via genes passed on through the sperm and the egg. Children obviously have no control over these physical characteristics. It is also possible (and some people would argue very plausible) that we inherit certain character traits from our parents. You might be an adrenalin junkie because your genes make you that way. You might be hot tempered. You might be sarcastic.

Answer 12

Genetic determinism is the 'nature' argument. You are who you are because you were born that way. By contrast, psychological determinism is the 'nurture' argument. You are who you are because of how you are brought up.  Psychological determinists (like genetic determinists) believe that how we act is caused by our character. However, rather than saying our character is caused by our genes they would argue that it is caused (at least in part) by our upbringing. Children learn by imitation and are very receptive to new influences. As we get older we are still shaped by our environment but we seem to be a bit less impressionable. This means that the influences that we are exposed to when we are young seem to be very important in shaping our character. A child brought up by hard-working parents might develop a studious character because that is what they have been brought up to believe to be normal. Therefore, if they work hard at school this is determined by their upbringing not their own free choice. Likewise, a lazy slacker would be equally able to blame their behaviour on their upbringing.

Answer 13

Children often differ dramatically from their parents and from their siblings which implies that they are not fully determined by either nature or nurture.  Genes for physical characteristics can be affected by other things. A person genetically predisposed to grow tall will not reach their full potential height if they are malnourished. Therefore, genes for character traits can also be affected by other things. Perhaps something like meditation can be used to control a genetic inclination towards anger.  Whilst certain genes have been linked to certain types of behaviour it is highly unlikely that there is one gene for violence (for example). Genetics is a lot more complicated than that.

Answer 14

Benjamin Libet conducted a neurological experiment in the 1980s which has been used to suggest that free will is just an illusion. In the experiment he asked a volunteer to move their finger whenever they liked but to notice at what time they experienced the feeling of intention (made the choice).  What he discovered was that the feeling of intention comes significantly after the action has been initiated. When Oxford mathematician Marcus du Sautoy repeated the experiment in the BBC Horizon Programme The Secret You he was shocked to discover that a person scanning his brain knew what decision he was going to make up to six seconds before he knew it!

Answer 15

The Libet experiment does provide some evidence for the idea that the feeling of free will is an illusion and our choices result from unconscious processes in the brain. However, we could argue that the experiment is a simplistic test and does not really replicate what happens when we make choices day to day. In the experiment the volunteer knows that they must make a choice between one of two options so it is perhaps not surprising that there is a subconscious process going on which contributes to this choice.

Answer 16

Determinism has profound implications for our understanding of ourselves. It also has obvious implications for things like crime and punishment. Understanding determinism might give people ways to reduce the likelihood of criminals reoffending. If 'nurture' created a law breaking personality, then could rehabilitation remould them into a law abiding citizen? More radically, if certain genes are associated with criminal behaviour then could those genes be switched off or replaced?

Answer 17

Cosmological arguments start from the observation that everything depends on something else for its existence. For example, you depended on your parents in order to exist, and they depended on their parents, and so on. Cosmological arguments then apply this to the existence of the universe itself. This argument says that the universe must have come from somewhere – Christians believe it came from God. St Thomas Aquinas (1225-74) devised several arguments to prove God’s existence. One of his arguments was the ‘First Cause’ argument. He argued that something cannot come from nothing. Therefore, the universe must have a cause and everything in the universe must have a cause – something or someone must have brought it into existence. He said that everything can be traced back to a First Cause, and this is God. It is just like the first domino in a row toppling that causes all the rest to fall. Aquinas also said that God is a necessary being – by this he means that God must exist: he cannot not exist. He was not created as we are, and there was no time when he did not exist.

Answer 18

Those people on the other side of the discussion, however, argue that infinite regression is possible. For example, mathematical numbers! There is no limit as to how far you can count backwards (or forwards). If this is true for things like numbers, why can’t the same be true of the universe?

Answer 19

Supporters of the Cosmological argument argue that it is not possible for a chain of causes to go back forever (this is called infinite regression) – There must be a first cause, otherwise there is no explanation for how things started off in the first place!

Answer 20

If everything that exists has a cause, then (as God exists) who caused God? argued that not every event has a cause, but we cannot prove this. Hume argued that we assume that everything has a cause out of bad habit. Because it seems obvious to us from looking at the everyday world, we assume it’s true, and our minds are used to it. Hume says this way of thinking is wrong. Hume says it’s wrong as just because the universe seems to have a cause, it doesn’t mean to say it has one. People who believe it has a cause just because it seems to are guilty of a mistake in thinking called the Fallacy of Composition.

Answer 21

Basically, it’s when you think that because something is true of the parts, you assume it’s true of the whole. For example, every human being (a part of the human race) has a mother, but the human race (as a whole) does not. Our individual body parts (e.g. heart, lungs, may have a purpose) but our complete bodies might not.

Answer 22

another famous philosopher, disagreed with David Hume’s argument. She argues that although things might seem (according to Hume) to not have a cause, in fact they do. She uses the example of a magician pulling a rabbit from a hat. It’s nice to imagine that the rabbit comes out of the hat from nowhere but the reality is that there is a cause (the work of the magician), even though we (the people watching the trick) might not understand how it happened. Anscombe argued that the same is true of the universe. Although we might not understand how the universe was caused, it almost certainly was, and the evidence in our own world and universe (of things being caused) supports

Answer 23

If God is omniscient, he will know natural evils will cause suffering. 2. If God is omnipotent, he is able to stop natural evil. 3. If God is omnibenevolent, he would want to stop natural evil. 4. But natural evils still happen. 5. So God does not know evil is happening, does not have the power to stop the evil or he doesn’t want to, in which case God does not exist.

Answer 24

1. Christians believe that God gives people free will.  They live their lives as they choose. If God intervened every time people did something that would cause harm to themselves or others then people would be afraid of God. Without free will there would be no point to their lives. 2. God has shown how people should live. Humans decide whether or not to follow God’s instructions. They take the consequences of their decisions. But that still leaves a problem. Why does free will lead to evil? Why don’t humans choose to do good? 3. As if to confirm that suffering is a normal part of being human, Christians also point to the suffering of Jesus who, as a man, suffered greatly.

Answer 25

According to one view of evil, ‘the fall’ of Adam and Eve introduced sin into the world, and since then all people have been born with a tendency towards evil. This is called original sin. It means the tendency to evil is in everyone, like a magnetic force within us or within the world.  Given the choice between good and evil, humans are usually attracted to do wrong, naturally.

Answer 26

Some people see evil as the work of a person – the Devil , or Satan. Satan appears at various times through the Bible, as the opposite of God.  Satan, in the form of the snake, tempts Eve to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge. Satan tests Jesus. Satan tempts Jesus to abandon his ministry.  In the Middle Ages the Devil was presented as an ugly man dressed in red, who lived in the fires of a place called Hell. Life was pictured as a struggle between God and Satan with Satan leading people to do evil.  This view still has influence in the modern world. There are Christians whose life revolved around ‘resisting Satan’. They ban the music of rock groups whose lyrics supposedly include Satanic ideas. They hold exorcisms to rid people of Satanic influence.

Answer 27

In the fourth century St Augustine suggested an alternative view. He compared evil to human disease.  He argued that just as health is the basic state of human bodies, so good is the basic state of human experience. He said that disease was just absence of health and in the same way evil is just absences of good.  When the body gets better the health returns and the disease disappears. So in human experience when the good is activated the evil just disappears; evil does not actually exist.  What we call evil is just absence of good in one particular part of the human experience. It follows that if enough people do good, they could remove evil entirely.  A modern writer has put it like this: ‘All that is needed for evil to triumph is for good people to do nothing.’

Answer 28

For Mahayana Buddhists, someone who has become enlightened but chooses to remain in the cycle of samsara to help others achieve enlightenment as well.

Answer 29

Suffering / dissatisfaction.

Answer 30

A demon that represents spiritual obstacles, especially temptation.

Answer 31

Nirvana-after-death, which occurs upon the death of the body of someone who has attained nirvana during his or her lifetime.

Answer 32

The three realisations that the Buddha made in order to achieve enlightenment.

Answer 33

“Wandering on”. It is the endless cycle of rebirth.

Answer 34

In the Pali language it means "association" or "assembly”. It was sometimes called the "fourfold assembly" - monks, nuns, laywomen, laymen. The Sangha is one of the three refuges/jewels of Buddhism.

Answer 35

When Queen Maya was due to give birth, she journeyed home to her parents’ house. On the way she stopped in the Lumbini Gardens where she went into labour and gave birth to a son. According to Legend, he could immediately walk and talk without any support. He walked seven steps and with every step he took, a lotus flower sprang up from the earth beneath his feet.

Answer 36

When Prince Siddhartha was a few days old, a holy man made a prophecy about the Prince. that the boy would be either a great ruler or a great spiritual teacher. King Suddhodana preferred the first outcome and prepared his son accordingly. He raised the boy in great luxury and shielded him from knowledge of religion and human suffering. Suddhodana didn’t want his son to seek religion and become a holy man. He thought that if his son became attached to a life of luxury, he would not want to leave the palace. Therefore, Siddhartha had everything he could want: wearing the finest clothes, eating the best foods, received an excellent education, and was cared for in every way. At the age of 16, he was married to his cousin, Yasodhara, who was also 16.

Answer 37

The Prince reached the age of 29 with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces. He was oblivious to the realities of suffering, old age, and death. One day, overcome with curiosity, Prince Siddhartha asked a charioteer, Channa, to take him on a series of rides through the countryside to the nearby city. On these journeys he was shocked by the sight of an old man, then a sick man, and then a dead man. The stark realities of old age, disease, and death seized and sickened the Prince. He realised that if someone was born, they would go through a process which would involve growing older, illness, suffering and death. There was no escape, even for kings. Finally, he saw a wandering ascetic. The charioteer explained that the ascetic was one who had renounced the world and sought release from the fear of death and suffering. Siddhartha was inspired by the wandering holy man which was perhaps the start of his quest to search for the answer to the problem of why people suffer and how to stop that suffering.

Answer 38

For a time, the Prince returned to palace life, but he took no pleasure in it. Even the news that his wife Yasodhara had given birth to a son did not please him. The child was called Rahula, which means "fetter". One night he wandered the palace alone. The luxuries that had once pleased him now seemed grotesque. He realised then that he could no longer be content living the life of a prince. That very night he left the palace, shaved his head, and changed from his royal clothes into a beggar's robe. Renouncing all the luxury he had known, he began his quest for enlightenment. By giving up his possessions and symbols of his previous life, Siddhartha was letting go of the things that he thought were keeping him ignorant and thus resulting in his suffering. Later, he taught that renunciation, a ‘letting go’, was important in reaching enlightenment.

Answer 39

Siddhartha started by seeking out renowned teachers. They taught him about the many religious philosophies of his day as well as how to meditate. After he had learned all they had to teach, his doubts and questions remained. He and five other disciples left to find enlightenment by themselves. The six companions attempted to find release from suffering through physical deprivation: enduring pain, holding their breath, fasting nearly to starvation. Siddhartha fasted for long periods of time, and stories say that his body became so thin that his legs were like bamboo sticks, his backbone was like a rope, his chest was like an incomplete roof of a house, and his eyes sank right inside his skull. He looked like a skeleton. It is also said that he lived in dangerous and hostile forests, slept on a bed of thorns, and experienced extreme pain. Yet Siddhartha was still unhappy. It occurred to him that in renouncing pleasure he had grasped the opposite of pleasure, which was pain and self-denial. Now Siddhartha considered a Middle Way between those two extremes. He remembered an experience from his childhood when his mind had settled into a state of deep peace. The path of liberation was through the discipline of mind. He realised that instead of starvation, he needed nourishment to build up his strength for the effort. When he accepted a bowl of rice milk from a young girl, his companions assumed he had given up the quest and abandoned him. His ascetic practices taught him discipline and willpower, but they did not provide a cure for suffering. Neither luxury nor an ascetic lifestyle has given Siddhartha any real answers. Therefore, he developed the Middle Way between the two extremes that he had experienced.

Answer 40

After rejecting his ascetic lifestyle, Siddhartha wondered if meditation was the way to attain the wisdom and compassion of enlightenment. Traditional stories say that he made a cushion of grass and found a suitable place to sit down and meditate. Siddhartha sat beneath a sacred fig tree, known as the Bodhi Tree (Bodhi means "awakened"). It was there that he settled into meditation.

Answer 41

Traditional stories say that, while he was meditating, in Siddhartha's mind he had a great battle with the demon Mara. The demon's name means "destruction" and represents the passions that tempt and delude us. Mara tried various tactics: Mara brought vast armies of monsters to attack Siddhartha. Mara offered Siddhartha control of his kingdom. Mara himself tried to attack Siddhartha. Mara sent his daughters to seduce Siddhartha. Finally, Mara claimed that the seat of enlightenment rightfully belonged to him, and his soldiers were witnesses to this. He claimed that without anyone to witness his enlightenment, he would not be believed. Then, Siddhartha reached out his right hand to touch the earth and called upon the earth to witness his right to sit under the Bodhi tree in mediation, and the earth itself roared, "I bear you witness!" Mara disappeared.

Answer 42

Siddhartha gained knowledge of all of his previous lives. 2. He came to understand the repeating cycle of life, death, and rebirth. He understood that beings were born depending on their kamma (actions), and he realised the importance of anatta (there is no fixed self). 3. He came to understand why suffering happens and how to overcome it.

Answer 43

At first, the Buddha was reluctant to teach because what he had realised could not be communicated in words. Only through discipline and clarity of mind would delusions fall away and one could experience true reality. Listeners without that direct experience would be stuck in conceptualisations and would surely misunderstand everything he said. Compassion persuaded him to make the attempt. It is said that Mara still tried to tempt him further to keep his realisations to himself. But the Buddha was determined to teach about suffering and how to overcome it, to help others to achieve enlightenment. He asked anyone who would follow him to reject a life of extremism, which meant not having too many luxuries nor living a very ascetic lifestyle. The Buddha left the Bodhi tree and wandered back to the Deer Park in Isipatana, located in what is now the province of Uttar Pradesh, India. This is the place where he had left the five ascetics, who then became his first students. This sermon has been preserved as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutra and centres on the Four Noble Truths. Instead of teaching doctrines about enlightenment, the Buddha chose to prescribe a path of practice through which people can realise enlightenment for themselves. The Buddha devoted himself to teaching and attracted hundreds of followers. Eventually, he became reconciled with his father, King Suddhodana. His wife, the devoted Yasodhara, became a nun and disciple. Rahula, his son, became a novice monk at the age of seven and spent the rest of his life with his father. The Buddha travelled tirelessly through all areas of northern India and Nepal. He taught a diverse group of followers, all of whom were seeking the truth he had to offer.

Answer 44

A man traveling along a path came to a great expanse of water. As he stood on the shore, he realized there were dangers and discomforts all about. But the other shore appeared safe and inviting. The man looked for a boat or a bridge and found neither. But with great effort he gathered grass, twigs and branches and tied them all together to make a simple raft. Relying on the raft to keep himself afloat, the man paddled with his hands and feet and reached the safety of the other shore. He could continue his journey on dry land. Now, what would he do with his makeshift raft? Would he drag it along with him or leave it behind? He would leave it, the Buddha said. Then the Buddha explained that the dharma is like a raft. It is useful for crossing over but not for holding onto, he said.

Answer 45

This simple story has inspired more than one interpretation. Was the Buddha saying that the dharma is a kind of provisional appliance that can be discarded when one is enlightened? That is how the parable often is understood. Others argue (for reasons explained below) that it is really about how to properly hold, or understand, the Buddha's teaching. Occasionally someone will cite the raft parable as an excuse to ignore the Eightfold Path, the Precepts, and the rest of the Buddha's teachings altogether, since you're going to ditch them, anyway. Buddhist author and scholar Damien Keown argues that dharma is represented in the story by the other shore, not by the raft. The raft parable is not telling us that we will abandon the Buddha's teaching and precepts upon enlightenment, Keown says. Rather, we will let go of provisional and imperfect understanding of the teachings.

Answer 46

Generosity – to be charitable and generous in all that is done 2. Morality – to live with good morals and ethical behaviour 3. Patience – to practise being patient in all things 4. Energy – to cultivate the energy and perseverance needed to keep going even when things get difficult 5. Meditation – to develop concentration and awareness 6. Wisdom – to obtain wisdom and understanding

Answer 47

Avalokiteshvara: one of the most popular Bodhisattvas, who is related to compassion. Visualising the Bodhisattva helps Buddhists to develop their own sense of compassion, which is considered to be an important quality to cultivate in order to achieve enlightenment.

Answer 48

The Pali Canon is also known as the Tipitaka (ti = three; pitaka = basket), meaning the Three Baskets, or Collections, of teachings. It is made up of: 1. The Vinaya Pitaka, the book of discipline for monks containing the 227 rules by which they must live. 2. The Sutta Pitaka, the teachings of the Buddha, given to disciples both lay and monastic. 3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka, contains the core philosophical teachings that underpin the Buddhist understanding of life. They were intended as a basis of the Buddhist outlook, which opposed other Indian conceptions of reality.

Answer 49

Of the three Pitakas of the Pali Canon, the Sutta Pitaka has the most universal significance to Buddhists, in that it is addressed to listeners both lay and monastic.

Answer 50

The Dhammapada is probably the best-known section of the Pali Canon. It consists of an anthology of the Buddha’s sayings, collected between 563 and 483BCE, and acts as a source of guidance for Buddhists everywhere but especially those in the Theravada tradition. It is a small collection of 423 verses concerned with the 'way' or 'footsteps' (pada), of the truth (Dhamma). It remains the most common source of inspiration for lay Buddhists. Its teachings and value are best indicated by quoting from the text itself.

Answer 51

The Dhammapada is accepted as being the teaching of the Buddha. The Dhammapada generally teaches Buddhists how to live their lives in the right way and is therefore an excellent source of authority. For example, the Dhammapada teaches:

Answer 52

An important part of the Buddhist path is developing spiritual maturity in the dharma and realising that your practice is for the benefit of everyone, because ultimately self-and-other are not two. In his book The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Thich Nhat Hanh said that "practicing with a Sangha is essential. ... Building a Sangha, supporting a Sangha, being with a Sangha, receiving the support and guidance of a Sangha is the practice." The second reason is that the Buddhist path is a path of giving as well as receiving. Your participation in the sangha is a way of giving back to the dharma.

Answer 53

1. The Buddha 2. The dharma, his teaching 3. The Sangha, the community of Buddhist practitioners

Answer 54

They are asking for the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha to guide them in their development of wisdom and compassion. When Buddhists ‘go for refuge’, they are expressing their commitment to following the path leading to enlightenment.

Answer 55

The aim of the Sangha is to follow the path that the Buddha taught and to gain help and assistance from others. It is the gathering of like-minded people for encouragement, each with the common goal of Enlightenment.

Answer 56

The elephant was of exceptional character, calm and friendly. However, the king noticed the elephant’s character changing. The elephant became irritable, prone to tempers and more difficult. Eventually the problem was identified. A group of criminals was meeting at the elephant’s stable. The elephant was clearly picking up characteristics of the people it was spending time with. The criminals were removed and, in time, the elephant rediscovered its old character. The idea of refuge in the Sangha can be compared to this. A person will develop characteristics from those people with whom they interact. The Sangha therefore is a place of positive, wholesome activity, with people who will help and not hinder spiritual progress:

Answer 57

It could be argued that the Buddha is the most important because he provides an example for Buddhists to follow. If he had not discovered the Dhamma and then taught it, Buddhists might never have been able to understand the way out of suffering. On the other hand, it could be argued that the Dhamma is the most important because it describes the way things are. This ‘truth’ existed long before the Buddha recognised it (in the same way that the law of gravity is true whether anyone knows about it or not). Finally, the Sangha is very important to a Buddhist’s life. For an ordinary person following the Buddha’s teaching, it is very encouraging to know that other ordinary people have reached the wisdom and compassion of enlightenment, not just the Buddha. Nuns and monks are essential as guides to less experienced Buddhists. In Buddhists’ everyday lives, the Sangha around them can also provide support, encouragement and friendship.

Answer 58

A few months after his enlightenment the Buddha founded an order of monks, and later on nuns. The purpose of this order was twofold. Its primary purpose was to provide a community that would give the optimum opportunity for its members to practice the Dharma and attain Nirvana. Its secondary purpose was to transmit the Dharma and be a witness to its transforming power. Since the time of the Buddha, monks and nuns have expanded their role beyond that of the practitioner and teacher to become, at different times and places, educators, artists, social workers, scholars, physicians, and even rulers. In Tibet, a line of monks called the Dalai Lama's, ruled the country from the 16th to the middle of the 19th century.

Answer 59

1. sexual intercourse; 2. theft; 3. taking of a human life; 4. false proclamation of miraculous powers.

Answer 60

The main task of the Buddhist monastic community is to preserve and practise the Teaching of the Buddha. The Buddha Himself had indicated that the survival of the Teaching depended upon the existence of the monastic community, whose members can devote all their time and energy to this important task. Having accomplished this, they can use their learning and wisdom to help society as a whole. Although the members of the Buddhist monastic community have renounced the worldly life, they still have an important contribution to make to the welfare of the society. For instance, they help to solve the problems of the lay followers through counselling. Not being attached to the worldly conditions such as happiness and pain, gain and loss, they are more objective and farsighted in their outlook. They are therefore able to advise the lay followers on the best course of conduct. They also help lay followers to face the trials and sufferings of life, especially in times of distress such as when a serious illness or death occurs. Finally, the members of the monastic community also help to provide various social services for the lay community. The Buddhist monasteries have an important role to play in the education of the young and even today, there are Buddhist schools functioning alongside state schools. In addition, Buddhist monks and nuns help in the running of free clinics, orphanages, homes for the aged and the sick, and other welfare organisations.

Beliefs and Values Flashcards

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