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1
Q

Where is electron transport chain?

A

inner membrane of mitochondria

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2
Q

Gram positive bacteria

A

have thick wall, iodine stain can’t leak out, but no outer membrane, allows it to get in in first place

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3
Q

micelle

A

formed of one lipid layer, not 2
when formed overall decrease in Gibbs free E
driven by hydrophobic effect
will spontaneously form in aq

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4
Q

glycosylation

A

post tL modification to ptns

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5
Q

Ptn modifications after tL

A

glycosylation, sulfation, phosph

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6
Q

transduction

A

transfer of bact DNA via viral vector

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7
Q

malate is product in what?

A

Krebs Cycle

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8
Q

Anabolic process

A

Use of biosynthesis of complex orgs from simpler mcules

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9
Q

glucose catabolism

what are the main steps?

A
  1. Glycolysis - oxidation of glucose
  2. Either fermentation (no O2)
    OR
    Cellular resp.
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10
Q

Glycolysis
Equation
notes
where does it occur?

A

Gluc + 2ADP + 2P +NAD+ –> 2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H + 2H2O
Net Atp made: 2
Nadh will go on to make more atp
occurs in cyto

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11
Q

pyruvate kinase

defficiency?

A

final enzyme to create pyruvate in glycolysis.
Deficiency leads to anemia…RBC don’t have mitochondria so they rely on glyc for atp completely. No kinase? no atp, funny shape, destroyed by spleen

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12
Q

fermentation
when does this happen?
reaction?
notes

A

happens after glycolysis when no O present
Now you have nadh, need to regenerate nad+ somehow to keep glyc going
reduce pyruvate into lactic acid or ethanol
1. Alcohol ferm - Pyruvate reduced by NADH, so you get nad, and glyc goes on
2. lactic acid - pyruvate reduced by nadh, you get nad and lactic acid. Glyc goes on

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13
Q

what happens in muscle cells during workout

A

lactic acid build up , ph lowers

when you get O2, it oxidizes lactic acid into pyruvate

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14
Q 
Cell respiration
when does it happen?
where?
How many atp prod?
what are the 3 stages?
A 
happens after glycolysis when O2 is present
36-38 atp
mitochondria
1. Pyruvate decarboxy
2. citric acid cycle aka krebs
3. e transport chain
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15
Q

pyruvate decarboxy

A 
1st step of cell resp
pyruvate enters mito matrix
get decarboxy, ie loses co2
remaining makes coenzymeA
pyruvate + CoenzymeA --> Acetyl CoA
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16
Q

Citric Acid Cycle aka Krebs

A

Acetylo COA combines with oxaloacetate –> citrate
co2 released
1 atp
e are transferred to nad and fad which carry e to e transport chain

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17
Q

e transport chain
where?
what? e?

A

inner mito membrane
nadh and fadh2 show up with lots of es.
These are high potential e!
e are transferred via carrier mcules and E is released
cytochrome c - last e carrier, gives e to o2
O picks up H too, making water
proton pump - ETC pumps H into intermembrane space, gradient established, inner now pos charged.
Pumps push H back into inner membrane called ATP synthetases
E released, ADP phosph to ATP

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18
Q

What are the 3 e carriers in etc?

A

ubiquinone or bc-1, nadh dehydrogenase, cytochrome c

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19
Q

which is the last e carrier in etc? give e to what?

A

cytochrome c gives e to O2

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20
Q

What if there is no O for etc?

A

etc gets backlogged with e.

nad can’t be regnerated to nadh, glyc stops unless lactic acid ferm occurs

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21
Q

cyanide poisoning

A

blocks e transfer from cyto c to O

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22
Q

How many atp made from etc?

A

1 for each passing in etc, so 3. E is lost, that’s what makes the atp

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23
Q

what happens to the H ions when e get transferred?

A

they accumulate in mito matrix

etc pumps H across inner mito membrane into intermembrane space

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24
Q

protonmotive force

A

pumps H out of intermembrane space into inner membrane via ATP synthetases. E is released, ATP produced

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25
citric acid aka krebs equation
1 acetylcoA + 6NAD +2fad+2gdp+2P+4h20 --> 4CO2+6nadh+2fadh2+2atp+4H+2CoA
26
O2 in etc
final e acceptor. Also picks up H making water
27
what does decarboxylation mean?
to lose co2
28
in what orgs does lactic acid take place?
fungi, bact, humans in exercise
29
what orgs does alcohol ferm take place?
yeast and some bact
30
Glyc net rxn
gluc+2adp+2p+2nad --> 2 pyruvate +2atp+2nadh+2H+2h20
31
where does pyruvate go in aerobic conditions?
cell respiration in mito
32
where does pyruvate go in anaerobic?
fermentation
33
pyruvate decarboxy equation
pyruvate + CoenzymeA --> AcetylCoA + nad
34
What are the 3 major alternate E sources?
1. Carbs 2. Fats 3. Ptns
35
Alternate E - Carbs
disaccs into monosaccs | converted into gluc or glycolytic intermediate
36
Where are fats stored?
adipose tissue as triglyceride
37
process of using fats
triglyceride converted to fatty acid and glycerol via lipases carried to tissue via blood glycerol converted to PGAL fatty acid gets activated in cyto, taken into mito becomes acetylcoA -->Krebs
38
how long can fat last a human?
month
39
how long can glycogen aka carbs last a human?
a day
40
what alternate E source yields most ATP?
fats
41
Alternate E - Ptn
body will only use aa when desperate C atoms of aa converted into acetylcoA, pyruvate or Kreb intermediate enter respective paths
42
transamination
aa lose amino group to form keto acid in breakdown when starving
43
ATP structure
nitro base adenine, sugar ribose, 3 weakly linked P groups
44
where is E in Atp stored?
in covalent bonds that attach P groups
45
Atp hydrolysis
atp loses a P, releases E
46
autotroph
makes gluc via breaking of co bonds and OH bonds in co2 and h20 plants, can convert sunlight into E
47
Where is E stored in autotrophs?
in organic compounds like gluc via photosynth
48
heterotrophic
obtain E catabolically, must break down nuts
49
autotroph equation
6co2+6h20+E --> c2h1206 +6co2
50
heterotrhophic eq
c2h1206 + 6c02--> 6 co2 +6h20+E
51
zymogen | eg?
enzyme in inactive form | pepsinogen, trypsinogen
52
allosteric enzyme
enzyme has 2 or more active sites
53
albumin
osmoregulator in blood
54
taxonomic levels from least to most related:
``` kingdom phylum class order family genus species ```
55
calcitonin
puts ca into the bone, inhib release of Ca into blood. released from thyroid CalciTONin TONES down blood ca levels
56
parathyroid hormone
takes calcium out of bone | inc blood ca levels
57
do bact have cell wall? plasma membrane? nuc membrane?
yes yes no
58
where does tx of dna into rna take place?
nucleus
59
bacteriostatic
stops growth of but does not kill bact
60
oxidoreductase
catalyze rxn involving e transfer | big in targeting free radicals
61
hydrolase
enzyme catalyzes rxn by adding water
62
synthases
catalyze synthesis rxns
63
isomerase
produces isomers
64
where are mito ptns made?
some are made by free ribos in the cytoplasm | the rest are made in mito matrix, because remember mito has its own ribos too!
65
suicide inhibitor
inhib that binds to active site and irreversible changed conformation of enzyme
66
collapsed fetal lungs
fetal lungs are collapsed until birth. They are filled with mucus/fetal lung liquid.
67
phago white blood cells
engulf bact in circ system 2nd line of defense if that doesn't work - 3rd line aka antibodies come into play
68
phylum chordata
vertebrates
69
important factors in blood clotting
platelets, thrombin, ca ions, fibrin
70
how are amino acids joined to make ptns?
dehydration synthesis | is the removal of water
71
parietal cells
in the stomach, produce HCl to keep stomach acidic
72
why does the stomach need to be so acidic?
to denature ptns and degrade food. also to fight bact I think, maybe that's just an added bonus
73
hyperventilation
increases the output of CO2, decreases blood co2, increases ph
74
chaperone ptns facilitate what binding in ptns?
teritiary
75
DNA polymerase | which phase of cell cycle is it used in?
used in DNA rep, S phase!
76
zona pellucida
layer outside of the egg that the sperm must penetrate
77
receptor antagonist
a ligand that binds a receptor and stops another ligand from binidng
78
immunoglobulins a part of the innate or adaptive immune system? complement?
adaptive, involved in allergen recognition complement is innate, a biochem cascade that clears pathogens
79
gluconogenesis
the reverse of glycolysis. It's the formation fo glucose from pyruvate
80
fungal spore
unicellular body that grows into a new fungus
81
``` Bile salts where are the made? where are they stored? what are they synthesized from? what's their main job? ```
made in liver stored in galbladder produced from cholesterol and derivs job is to emulsify fats for fat digestion
82
tendons
connect muscle to bone
83
ligaments
connect bone to bone
84
axial skeleton
includes cranium and vertebrae
85
appendicular skeleton
includes arms and leg bones
86
ectoderm gives rise to...
skin,nervouus tissue
87
mesoderm gives rise to...
excretory, heart and musculoskeletal
88
endoderm gives rise to...
internal organs
89
what causes gram pos bact to stain? what do gram pos have that neg don't?
thick peptidoglycan layer/coat
90
viruses are in what size range?
20-500 nanometers
91
prereq for plasmid conjugation?
physical contact! | sex pilus
92
what connects kidney to bladder?
ureter
93
where is gastrin produced?
stomach, duodenum and pancreas
94
what does the liver do?
``` regulate blood glucose levels produces urea converts excess glucose to glycogen and vice versa processes nitro waste aa deamination detox destroy old erythros BILE makes blood ptns antigen defense fatty acids to ketones fats, aa, carb interconversions ```
95
what does the pancreas do?
endocrine and exocrine cells secrete digestive enzymes into small i (exocrine) endocrine - islets of langerhans make glucagon, insulin and somatostatin - these all aid in glucose regulation, conversion and synth
96
what does the gallbladder do?
stores bile until its released into the si
97
what provides shape and structure to nuc?
intermediate filaments
98
what gives the cell mechanical support?
intermediate fils
99
what is responsible for setting cell size limit?
surface area to cytoplasm ratio
100
can you write a rate law for a multistep rxn with only one eq?
no! you do not know which one is the rate determining step
101
hardy-weinberg equations
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 | p+q = 1
102
are fungi auto or heterotrophs?
hetero
103
bacteria have what kind of Dna?
circular
104
what is a nonsense mutation?
it is a result of a pt, insertion or deletion mutation which causes nonsense as a result. It is not a mutation in itself
105
What is the H band? does it change in contraction?
the area of only thick fils, this does change in contraction
106
What is the A band?
spands the whole length of the thick fils (includes thin too) this does not change in contraction, because thick fils don't actually change themselves
107
What is the I abdn?
thin fils only, does change to basically 0 in contract
108
what is the z line?
defines the boundaries of the individual sarcomeres, also anchors the thin fils
109
what is the M line?
runs down the middle of the sarc, thing Middle
110
what is convergent evolution?
2 unrelated species acquiring similar traits over time
111
in noncompetitive inhib, can the substrate still bind to the enzyme?
yes, it can still bind. Both the substrate and the inhib can bind to the enzyme, the sub just won't be able to make the enzyme do its job

MCAT (14 decks)

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