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BIO 110 Flashcards

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1
Q

Nucleus

A

Stores DNA; site of transcription

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2
Q

ER

A

Protein and lipid synthesis; entry point for the secretory pathway

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3
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Post-translational protein modifications and sorting

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4
Q

Lysosome

A

Degradation of biomolecules; acidic pH environment maintained by H⁺ pumps

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5
Q

Mitochondria

A

ATP production and apoptosis regulation

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6
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Involved in photosynthesis; contains thylakoids for light-dependent reactions

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7
Q

Nuclear membrane

A

Double membrane structure; outer membrane is continuous with the ER.

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8
Q

Nuclear pore

A

Made of ~30 different proteins; selectively allows passage of molecules with a nuclear localization signal (NLS)

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9
Q

Export of mRNA

A

Requires a mature transcript (spliced, 5’ capped, 3’ polyadenylated), export receptors (like NXF1), and transport through nuclear pores using Ran-GTP.

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10
Q

Replication of DNA

A

Requires origin of replication and DNA helicase to initiate replication.

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11
Q

Import of proteins into the nucleus

A

Requires Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS), nuclear import receptors, nuclear pore complex (NPC), and Ran-GTP for directional transport.

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12
Q

Mitochondrial features

A

Outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, and matrix; proteins are imported via outer/inner membrane translocators with the help of signal sequences and chaperones.

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13
Q

Chloroplast membranes

A

Outer membrane, inner membrane, and thylakoid membrane; thylakoids house the light-dependent photosynthetic machinery.

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14
Q

Signal sequences

A

Short amino acid sequences that direct proteins to specific cellular compartments.

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15
Q

Sorting of proteins to the ER

A

ER signal sequence is recognized by the Signal Recognition Particle (SRP), which directs the ribosome to the ER membrane for co-translational transport into the ER.

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16
Q

Ribosome direction to the ER

A

Via the ER signal sequence on the nascent polypeptide, which is recognized by SRP.

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17
Q

Sorting of soluble proteins

A

Fully translocated into the ER lumen; signal peptide is cleaved.

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18
Q

Sorting of transmembrane proteins

A

Inserted into ER membrane via stop-transfer and start-transfer sequences; orientation is determined by sequence combinations.

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19
Q

Sorting of proteins into the nucleus

A

Through nuclear pores using NLS, nuclear import receptors, and Ran-GTP cycling.

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20
Q

Sorting of proteins to the mitochondria

A

Most mitochondrial proteins are synthesized in the cytosol and contain an N-terminal mitochondrial signal sequence; they are imported in an unfolded state using four helper proteins.

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21
Q

Transport of proteins in mitochondrial membranes

A

Most mitochondrial proteins are imported using import receptors, two translocators (outer and inner membrane), and a chaperone to refold the protein inside the matrix.

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22
Q

Internal targeting signals

A

Signals used by proteins destined for mitochondrial membranes to facilitate insertion into the inner membrane.

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23
Q

OXA, TIM22

A

Mechanisms through which proteins are inserted into mitochondrial membranes.

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24
Q

Start-transfer and stop-transfer sequences

A

Sequences that help determine the insertion orientation of transmembrane proteins.

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25
Transmembrane proteins
Proteins that span the membrane, characterized by hydrophobic stop-transfer and possibly start-transfer sequences.
26
Quality control in the ER
Mechanisms that prevent misfolded proteins from exiting the ER, including chaperone proteins and the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR).
27
Chaperone proteins
Proteins that bind to misfolded proteins to prevent their exit from the ER.
28
Unfolded Protein Response (UPR)
A cellular response triggered by the accumulation of misfolded proteins, increasing chaperone production or initiating apoptosis.
29
Glycosylation
The addition of sugar chains to proteins, which can be N-linked (to asparagine) or O-linked (to serine/threonine).
30
Protein sorting
The process by which proteins are directed to their appropriate cellular locations, differing for nuclear, ER, mitochondrial, and chloroplast proteins.
31
Nuclear sorting
Involves Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS), import receptor, Nuclear Pore Complex (NPC), and Ran-GTP.
32
ER sorting
Involves ER signal sequence, Signal Recognition Particle (SRP), and co-translational import.
33
Mitochondrial sorting
Involves N-terminal signal, import receptors/translocators, and chaperones.
34
Chloroplast sorting
Similar to mitochondrial sorting but uses TOC/TIC complexes and light-regulated chaperones.
35
Membrane vesicles
Small, membrane-bound carriers that transport proteins and lipids between organelles.
36
Transport of membrane vesicles
Directed by specific combinations of Rab proteins, tethering proteins, and SNAREs.
37
v-SNAREs and t-SNAREs
Proteins that mediate vesicle docking and fusion; v-SNAREs are on vesicles, t-SNAREs are on target membranes.
38
Vesicle coats
Proteins that form a coat around vesicles, including COPI, COPII, and clathrin.
39
COPI
Coat protein that transports vesicles from the Golgi to the ER.
40
COPII
Coat protein that transports vesicles from the ER to the Golgi.
41
Clathrin
Coat protein that transports vesicles from the Golgi to endosomes/lysosomes or from the plasma membrane to endosomes.
42
Dynamin
GTPase that pinches off vesicles during budding.
43
Vesicle assembly
Occurs when coat proteins bind to membrane receptors, bending the membrane to form a bud.
44
Cargo receptors
Proteins that bind specific cargo proteins inside the donor compartment to select for particular cargo in vesicles.
45
Rab proteins
Proteins on vesicles that ensure specificity by being recognized by tethering proteins on target membranes.
46
Constitutive secretion
Vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane continuously without external signals.
47
Regulated secretion
Vesicles that wait for a signal (e.g., hormone or neurotransmitter) to fuse with the plasma membrane.
48
Endocytosis
The process by which cells internalize substances, including phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
49
Phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis known as 'cell eating,' where large particles or cells are engulfed.
50
Pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis known as 'cell drinking,' where fluid and small molecules are taken up continuously.
51
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
A type of endocytosis that involves the uptake of specific molecules using receptors.
52
Organelle for sorting endocytosed macromolecules
The sorting of endocytosed macromolecules occurs in the endosome.
53
Endocytosis
The process by which cells internalize molecules, delivering them to endosomes for sorting.
54
Lysosomes
Organelles that degrade macromolecules using acidic hydrolases, with an acidic environment maintained by ATP-driven H⁺ pumps.
55
Cell Cycle Phases
The four phases are G1 (cell growth, organelle duplication), S (DNA replication), G2 (DNA repair, prep for division), and M (mitosis and cytokinesis).
56
Cyclins and Cdks
Cyclins bind and activate Cdks, which control transitions between phases of the cell cycle.
57
Cdk Regulation
Cdk activity is regulated by cyclin availability, phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, and Cdk inhibitors like p21.
58
Mutations in Cyclins/Cdks
Mutations that increase Cdk or cyclin activity can lead to unchecked cell division and cancer.
59
Consequences of DNA Damage
Replicating damaged DNA can lead to mutations, genomic instability, and potentially cancer.
60
M Phase
The phases of cell division during M phase include Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
61
M-Cdk Function
M-Cdk phosphorylates proteins to condense chromosomes, break down the nuclear envelope, and assemble the spindle.
62
Cytoskeletal Proteins in Mitosis
Microtubules form the spindle; actin and myosin form the contractile ring for cytokinesis.
63
Prophase Features
Chromosomes condense and the spindle begins to form.
64
Prometaphase Features
The nuclear envelope breaks down and microtubules attach to kinetochores.
65
Metaphase Features
Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell.
66
Anaphase Features
Sister chromatids are pulled apart.
67
Telophase Features
The nuclear envelope reassembles and chromosomes decondense.
68
Microtubule Roles in Mitosis
Aster microtubules position spindle poles, kinetochore microtubules pull chromatids apart, and interpolar microtubules push poles apart.
69
Mitotic Spindle Assembly
Dynamic instability allows microtubules to 'search and capture' chromosomes, with motor proteins like dynein and kinesin helping to position and segregate chromosomes.
70
Nuclear Envelope Breakdown
Events that mediate nuclear envelope breakdown and reassembly occur during mitosis.
71
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
Checkpoints ensure DNA is intact and properly replicated, and that chromosomes are correctly aligned before division.
72
G1/S Checkpoint
Checks for DNA damage and sufficient nutrients before allowing the cell to proceed to S phase.
73
G2/M Checkpoint
Checks if DNA replication is complete and if DNA is repaired before proceeding to mitosis.
74
Spindle Checkpoint
Ensures all chromosomes are attached to the spindle before allowing anaphase to proceed.
75
M-Cdk
Phosphorylates lamin proteins, depolymerizing the nuclear lamina.
76
Telophase
The phase when Cdk1 is inactivated and lamins reassemble.
77
Cdk1 + cyclin B
Control mitosis; activation triggers condensation, spindle formation, and NEB.
78
APC
Degrades cyclin B, ending mitosis.
79
Mitosis
Cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells from somatic cells.
80
Meiosis
Cell division resulting in four genetically unique haploid gametes from germ cells.
81
Apoptosis
Controlled cell death that maintains tissue homeostasis, removes damaged/old cells, and prevents cancer.
82
Necrosis
Uncontrolled cell death that causes swelling, rupture, and inflammation.
83
Intrinsic apoptotic pathway
Triggered by DNA damage leading to a cascade involving p53, Bax/Bak, cytochrome c, and caspase-9.
84
Extrinsic apoptotic pathway
Triggered by death signals leading to DISC, caspase-8 or -10, and a caspase cascade.
85
Initiator caspases
Caspase-9 for intrinsic pathway; Caspase-8 and Caspase-10 for extrinsic pathway.
86
Executioner caspases
Caspase-3, -6, -7, which carry out apoptosis.
87
Protein Sorting
Proteins are sorted via signal sequences such as NLS, ER signals, and mitochondrial N-terminal sequences.
88
Nuclear import
Uses NLS, nuclear import receptors, and Ran-GTP.
89
Mitochondrial import
Involves translocators, import receptors, and chaperones; proteins must be unfolded.
90
Vesicle Transport
COPI transports from Golgi to ER, COPII from ER to Golgi, and Clathrin from trans-Golgi or plasma membrane.
91
Exocytosis
Can be constitutive or regulated.
92
Endocytosis types
Includes phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking), and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
93
Cell Cycle phases
Includes G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (prep), and M (mitosis).
94
Cell Cycle checkpoints
G1/S, G2/M, and spindle checkpoint ensure correct progression.
95
Cdk activity regulation
Regulated by cyclin availability, phosphorylation (Wee1/Cdc25), and inhibitor proteins (e.g., p21).
96
Mitosis phases
Includes Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
97
Cytokinesis
Uses an actomyosin ring to divide the cytoplasm.
98
Meiosis I
Homologs separate.
99
Meiosis II
Sister chromatids separate.
100
Genetic diversity in meiosis
Increases through recombination and independent assortment.

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