Bio 2 Lecture 1: The Cell Flashcards
(249 cards)
1
Q
What is taxonomy?
A
naming system for organisms
2
Q
What are the 8 groupings in taxonomy?
A
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
3
Q
What are the 3 domains?
A
Bacteria
4
Q
What 4 kingdoms are in Eukarya domain?
A
Protista
5
Q
All animals belong to what class and phylum?
A
Mammalia
6
Q
What is a species?
A
all organisms that can reproduce fertile offspring with each other
7
Q
What are 3 reasons why organisms can be prevented from producing fertile offspring?
A
temporal isolation
8
Q
What is temporal isolation?
A
mating in different seasons
9
Q
What is geographic isolation?
A
living in different areas of planet
10
Q
What is genetic incompatibility?
A
not have compatible gametes to produce fertile offspring
11
Q
What is speciation?
A
formation of a new species
12
Q
What process does NOT lead to speciation?
A
inbreeding
13
Q
What is inbreeding?
A
mating of relatives which increases the number of homozygous individuals without changing allele frequency
14
Q
What is outbreeding?
A
mating of non-relatives
15
Q
What is a bottleneck situation?
A
random events where some members of species may die etc.; allelic frequencies of the population shift
16
Q
What is specialization?
A
members of a species change their behaviors to exploit their environment
17
Q
What is adaption?
A
genetic or behavioral change that is advantageous in the environment
18
Q
What does it mean if a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
A
no evolution can happen
19
Q
What are the 5 features of the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium?
A
- mutational equilibrium
20
Q
What is mutational equilibrium?
A
rate of forward mutations equals rate of backward mutations
21
Q
Evolutionary time can be measured by?
A
gradual random changes in the genome
22
Q
Why?
A
NAME?
23
Q
What is the fitness concept?
A
fittest organism survives best to reproduce offspring
24
Q
The success of a gene can be measured as its?
A
increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation
25
What is differential reproduction?
#NAME?
26
What are viruses?
tiny infectious agents
27
What is the main structure of a virus?
capsid, nucleic acid, lipid-rich protein envelope
28
Viruses have the ability to transfer?
genetic info
29
What is a capsid?
protein coat with DNA and RNA
30
Viruses do NOT contain:
both DNA and RNA; only 1
31
What is a viral particle?
mature virus outside the host cell
32
why?
#NAME?
33
How do viruses and nuclei differ?
#NAME?
34
What is the host cell?
cell being infected
35
What is the receptor?
glycoprotein on the host cell membrane
36
Viral infection begins when?
virus binds to chemical receptor site on host cell
37
What is a bacteriophage?
virus that infects bacteria
38
Bacteriophages inject nucleic acids into host cells through?
tails
39
What does a bacteriophage contain?
tail
40
Many what ? can fit inside bacteriophage?
mitochondria
41
What are the 4 main steps to bacteriophage infection?
1. landing
42
Exception?
#NAME?
43
Once virus is in the cell, what are the 2 possible paths?
lysogenic infection
44
What happens in a lytic infection?
#NAME?
45
What is the latent period?
period from infection to lysis
46
What is a virulent virus?
virus following a lytic cycle that is capable of causing disease
47
What happens in a lysogenic infection?
viral DNA is incorporated into host genome; when host cell replicates its DNA also replicates viral DNA
48
May show?
#NAME?
49
When does it become active?
#NAME?
50
The viral envelope protects the virus from?
detection by immune system
51
What is the main difference between enveloped viruses and noneveloped viruses?
-enveloped don't cause cell to die right away, may die eventually due to degradation of its membrane
52
RNA viruses replicate via?
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP)
53
What does the RdRP do?
synthesize a new strand of RNA from a previously existing RNA strand
54
What RNA strands code for proteins?
#NAME?
55
If a virus contains -RNA, it must undergo?
one replication by RdRP to form +RNA to code for proteins
56
What are retroviruses?
single stranded RNA viruses able to transcribe RNA into double stranded DNA
57
The retrovirus reverse transcription is carried out by?
reverse transcriptase
58
What is a common example of a retrovirus?
HIV
59
What are subviral particles?
infectious agents related to viruses
60
What 2 things do subviral particles include?
viroids
61
Only infect?
small rings of naked RNA without capsids
62
Capable of doing what?
#NAME?
63
Prokaryotes do NOT have?
complex, membrane bound organelle, including nuclei
64
Prokaryotes are split into what 2 domains?
Bacteria
65
Found in?
eukaryotes
66
Prokaryotes have a single circular double stranded molecule of DNA twisted into?
supercoils and associated with histones in Archaea and proteins in Bacteria
67
What is a nucleoid?
complex of DNA, RNA and proteins in prokaryotes
68
Bacteria come in what 3 shapes?
cocci (spherical)
69
Spiral/helical bacteria are called ? if they are flexible?
spirochetes
70
What is a symbiotic relationship?
mutually beneficial
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What is a parasitic relationship?
relationship is beneficial to bacteria but hurts other organism
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Prokaryotes can be both?
anaerobic or aerobic
73
What is the plasma membrane?
phospholipid bilayer that surrounds cytosol of prokaryotes
74
Each phospholipid is composed of what 3 things?
phosphate group
75
What is called a protoplast?
bacterial plasma membrane and everything it contains
76
What is the bacterial envelope?
surrounds the protoplast
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What are the cell walls of bacteria made of?
peptidoglycan
78
Peptidoglycan consists of?
disaccharide polymer chains with amino acids connected by an interbridge of more amino acids/cross links
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The cell wall of bacteria is?
porous, allows large molecules to pass through
80
What does penicillin attack?
amino acid crosslinks of peptidoglycan
81
What is gram staining?
used to prepare bacteria for viewing which stains 2 major cell wall types differently
82
What do gram-positive bacteria have?
peptidoglycan is thick and on the outside
83
What is periplasmic space?
space between plasma membrane and cell wall
84
What do gram-negative bacteria contain?
-smaller amount of peptidoglycan located between 2 membranes
85
Some gram-negative bacteria possess?
fimbriae/pili
86
What are bacterial flagella?
long, hollow, rigid, helical cylinders made from flagellin
87
What kind of protein is flagellin?
globular
88
What does this allow?
#NAME?
89
What is it propelled using?
#NAME?
90
What is the chemotaxis?
the directed movement toward substances that will promote survival of bacterium
91
Bacteria under go what cell division?
binary fission
92
What happens in it?
#NAME?
93
What are the 3 other forms of genetic recombination that allows bacteria to trade DNA?
transformation
94
Bacteria increases by?
exponential growth
95
Binary fission results in?
2 genetically identical daughter cells
96
What is conjugation?
transfer of a plasmid
97
What are plasmids?
circles of extragenomic DNA; can exist and replicate independently from bacterial chromosome
98
What is an episome?
plasmid that can integrate into chromosome
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In order for a bacterium to initiate conjugation, it must contain?
conjugative plasmid
100
Conjugative plasmid possesses gene for?
sex pillus
101
What are the 2 main types of plasmids?
F plasmid
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What is the F plasmid?
fertility factor which codes for sex pilus
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What is the R plasmid?
donates resistance to certain antibiotics
104
ex?
#NAME?
105
What is transduction?
transfer of genetic material by a virus
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The virus that mediates transduction is called a?
vector
107
What are transposons?
pieces of DNA that can move from one place to another on the genome
108
What are the main steps of retrovirus injection?
1. retrovirus injects viral RNA into host cell
109
Most animal viruses enter host cells through?
receptor-mediated endocytosis
110
How are animal viruses different from bacteriophages?
animal viruses don't leave capsids outside host cells
111
What is the fluid surrounding nucleus called?
nucleoplasm
112
What is the nuclear envelope?
double phospholipid bilayer wrapped around nucleus
113
The nuclear envelope is perforated with?
nuclear pores
114
what can't?
RNA
115
What is the nucleolus?
area in nucleus where rRNA is transcribed and subunits of ribosomes are assembled
116
Proteins that will be ultimately exported from the cell are translated on?
the ER
117
The movement of a protein from the cytosol to the ER is an example of?
signal sequence
118
The ER separates the cytosol from?
the ER lumen or cisternal space
119
Synthesizes all proteins that don't belong in?
#NAME?
120
And then sent to the ?
ER lumen
121
What is the Golgi apparatus?
like an assembly line
122
What are transport vesicles?
bud off from the ER and carry proteins to the Golgi
123
Golgi may alter proteins by what 2 things?
glycosylation
124
What is glycosylation?
addition of a carbohydrate
125
What are the end products of the Golgi?
vesicles full of proteins
126
Release contents through?
enzymes, growth factors, etc.
127
What is constitutive secretion?
secretory vesicles are continuously released
128
What is regulated secretion?
release secretory vesicles in response to chemical or electrical stimuli
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What do lysosomes contain?
hydrolytic enzymes that digest substances taken in by endocytosis
130
What are acid hydrolases?
hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes
131
What do lysosomes come from?
Golgi apparatus
132
ER that lacks ribosomes is called?
smooth ER
133
Smooth ER does what 3 functions?
lipid metabolism
134
How do they grow?
#NAME?
135
What does the endosymbiotic theory say?
mitochondria may have evolved from symbiotic relationship between ancient prokaryotes and eukaryotes
136
Mitochondria are surrounded by two ?
phospholipid bilayers
137
What does the inner membrane of mitochondria do?
#NAME?
138
Prokaryotic flagella are made from?
-9+2 microtubule configuration
139
Prokaryotic flagella have what kind of action?
whip-like action
140
What is the cytoskeleton?
network of filaments that determines structure and motility of the cell
141
What are the 3 basic parts of the cytoskeleton?
microtubules
142
What 2 things do microtubules provide?
platform for transport within cells
143
Microtubules are made from what protein?
tubulin
144
Microtubules have what 2 ends?
+ and -
145
The - end of microtubules attach to?
microtubule organizing center (MTOC)
146
What is the major MTOC in animal cells?
centrosome
147
What 4 structures do microtubules make?
flagella of eukaryotes
148
Flagella and cilia function to do what?
move fluid causing the cell or nearby substances to move
149
What does the protein dynein do?
#NAME?
150
What are microfilaments?
-actin filaments; interact with myosin to cause muscle contraction
151
ex?
maintain cell's shapes
152
What is active transport?
anytime compound moves against electrochemical gradient across a membrane
153
What do facilitated and passive transport do?
go down the concentration gradient
154
Hydrolytic enzymes are activated by?
activated by a low pH from pumping protons into interior
155
Why would a pancreas have a well developed rough ER?
#NAME?
156
Where are peptide hormones synthesized?
rough ER
157
The center of the phospholipid bilayer is?
hydrophilic
158
What is a micelle?
spherical structure when amphipathic molecules aggregate turning their polar ends towards solution and nonpolar ends toward each other
159
What may form if enough phospholipids are present in a solution that has ultrasonic vibrations?
liposomes may form
160
What are leaflets?
inner and outer layer of membrane
161
What is a liposome?
vesicle surrounded by aqueous solution with lipid bilayer
162
Membranes must be?
spontaneously
163
why?
#NAME?
164
What are integral or intrinsic proteins?
amphipathic proteins that can cross the membrane from the inside of the cell to the outside
165
What are peripheral/extrinsic proteins?
located on the surface and are hydrophilic
166
Both integral and peripheral proteins are what type of protein?
glycoproteins
167
The model of the membrane is called the?
fluid mosaic model
168
ex?
#NAME?
169
Movement of a molecule across a membrane depends on what 2 factors?
electrochemical gradient
170
What is Brownian motion?
#NAME?
171
What is diffusion?
movement of one solution to the other
172
Made of?
#NAME?
173
Points in the direction of ?
electrical gradient
174
The chemical concentration gradient and the electrochemical gradient can be added to form?
electrochemical gradient for a specific solute
175
What 2 things must be considered when predicting permeability of the membrane to a substance?
size
176
What is passive diffusion?
molecules move through leakage channels across the membrane through random motion
177
If molecules are too large or too polar to passively diffuse, they require assistant of?
carrier proteins or membrane channels
178
ex?
lipid soluble
179
What types of molecules require facilitated diffusion?
molecules that are too big or polar and require protein
180
Active transport requires ?
ATP
181
What is secondary active transport?
allows ions to diffuse down electrochemical gradient created by another cellular mechanism (usually primary active transport)
182
What can't diffuse passively?
ions with full charge like Na+
183
Most cells are what to their environment?
isotonic to their environment
184
Define isotonic:
aqueous solution of their cytosol contains same concentration of particles as aqueous solution surrounding them
185
What are hypertonic cells?
more concentrated than environment
186
What are hypotonic cells?
less concentrated than environment
187
Osmotic pressure is generated when?
overall concentration of molecules on either side of membrane are not equal
188
What is osmotic pressure?
pulling pressure generated by concentration gradient which encourages osmosis
189
Osmotic pressure is an example of what property?
colligative property
190
What is the colligative property?
based on number of particles present rather than type of particle
191
If the cell is hypotonic to environment, what happens?
water exits the cell and cell shrivels
192
What are the 3 main types of endocytosis?
phagocytosis
193
Once particle is engulfed, membrane bound body is called?
cell membrane protrudes out to envelop particulate matter
194
What is pinocytosis?
fluid engulfed by cell membrane
195
What is receptor mediated endocytosis?
uptake of macromolecules like hormones and nutrients
196
This invaginates to form a ?
clathrin coated pit
197
What are the 5 stages of the life cycle of a somatic cell?
G-Growth
198
What makes up interphase?
G1
199
What happens in G1?
#NAME?
200
If not favorable cell enters?
S phase
201
What is the main factor that triggers the beginning of S phase?
cell size
202
What is the longest stage usually?
G1
203
What is G0?
non-growing state distinct from interphase
204
What happens in the S phase?
DNA replication
205
What is M phase defined by?
division of the nucleus
206
What happens in the G2 phase?
cell begins to divide
207
What does the G2 checkpoint check for?
mitosis promoting factor
208
Cells that can grow unchecked through the cell cycle can develop into?
cancer
209
What are the 2 types of mutations that can cause cancer?
tumor repressor
210
What does the tumor repressor do?
deactivation of a checkpoint protein
211
What does the oncogene do?
activation of gene that causes proliferation of the cell
212
Cells form groups of similar cells that work together called?
tissue
213
What are fibroblasts?
cells that secrete fibrous proteins like elastin and collagen
214
What do fibroblasts form?
extracellular matrix
215
What is the extracellular matrix?
material that surrounds the cell and is formed by the cell itself
216
What 3 molecules make up the animal cell matrices?
glycoaminoglycans and proteglycans
217
What is the basal lamina?
thin sheet of matrix material that separates epithelial cells from support tissue
218
What is the glycocalyx?
animal's carbohydrate region analogous to the plant cell wall
219
What are the 3 types of intercellular junctions that connect animal cells?
tight junctions
220
Found where?
#NAME?
221
Tight junctions also act as a barrier to protein movement between?
apical and basolateral surface of the cell
222
Not used for?
-join 2 cells at a single point
223
Found where?
small tunnels that connect cells, allowing movement of small molecules and ions between cells
224
Gap juntions can only allow communication between?
adjacent cells
225
When cell needs to communicate with cell far away, it sends out a ?
hormone to be picked up by receptor on another cell
226
Hormone binding to receptor can activate?
intracellular second messenger like cAMP, calmodulin etc.
227
What are the 4 main types of tissue?
epithelial tissue
228
What does epithelial tissue do?
separates free body surfaces from surroundings
229
Tissue types work together to form?
organs
230
What are systems?
organs that work together to perform a common function
231
Sodium-potassium pump transports ions how?
transports both sodium and potassium against their concentration gradient
232
why?
structures on the plasma membrane
233
What is the strongest type of cellular adhesion?
desmosomes
234
why?
G0
235
What 3 things are used for cell to cell communication?
nuclear receptors
236
to produce?
ribosomes
237
If bacteria ends in -coccus, the shape is ?
round
238
What does it produce in the liver?
-steroid hormone synthesis and metabolism; synthesis and breakdown of compounds; oxidizes foreign substances
239
Muscle cells are primarily concerned with?
#NAME?
240
What type of organelles would they have large amounts of?
#NAME?
241
What 2 types of proteins are produced in the rough ER?
secretory and integral proteins
242
Upregulation and down regulation of integral proteins probably occurs at what level?
level of gene expression or by post-translational modification
243
How do phospholipids most likely affect integral proteins?
modulating structural conformation of them
244
Proteins can only be synthesized in what 2 places?
rough ER
245
What is an endogenous substance?
produced in the body
246
Are ions hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
hydrophilic
247
Ion channels are necessary for ion transport across a cell membrane because?
polar ions can't pass through nonpolar bilayer
248
Where are potassium channels synthesized?
rough ER because they are a protein
249
Prokaryotic DNA is ? and lacks ?
histone proteins
