Bio 3 - Exam 1 Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Scientific Method
A
- make observation
- formulate a hypothesis
- devise a testable prediction
- conduct a critical experiment
- draw a conclussion and make revisions
2
Q
Observation
A
objective way to describe a phenomenon
3
Q
Hypothesis
A
proposed expectation - question that can be tested
4
Q
Null Hypothesis
A
No relationship exists between the two factors being tested
5
Q
Alternative Hypothesis
A
A specific relationship exists between the factors
6
Q
Testable Prediction
A
A situation that will have one outcome if the hypothesis is true but will give a different outcome if it is not true
7
Q
Elements Common to Most Experiments
A
- Treatment - an experimental condition applied to individuals
- Experimental group - a group of individuals who are exposed to a treatment
- Control group - a group of individuals who are treated the same as the experiment group except they are not given treatment
- Variable - characteristics of the system that are subject to change
8
Q
Independent Variables
A
The variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher
9
Q
Dependent Variable
A
The response that is measured
10
Q
Blind Experimental Design
A
Subject does not know what treatment (if any) is being given
11
Q
Double Blind Experimental Design
A
Neither the subject or the experimenter knows what treatment (if any) is being given
12
Q
Theory
A
A hypothesis that is supported by repeated tests
13
Q
Principle
A
A theory supported over a long period of time with a variety of experimental approaches
14
Q
Atom
A
Smallest unit that has characteristic properties of the element
15
Q
Molecule
A
Two or more atoms joined by chemical bonds
16
Q
Proton
A
Positively charged particles (+)
Equal to number of electrons
17
Q
Neutron
A
Uncharged particles (n or +-)
18
Q
Atomic Mass
A
Number of protons + Number of neutrons
19
Q
Atomic Number
A
Number of protons
20
Q
Electrons
A
Negatively charged particles
Equal to number of protons
21
Q
Ionic bond
A
One atom loses an electron, another gains an electron
Strongest chemical bond
22
Q
Covalent bond
A
Atoms share electrons
Second strongest chemical bond
23
Q
Polar Covalent bond
A
Atoms share electrons unequally
Second weakest chemical bond
24
Q
Hydrogen bond
A
Covalently-bonded hydrogen is attracted to another atom
Weakest chemical bond
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Cohesion
Water molecules associated with each other
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Adhesion
Water molecules associate with other molecules or surfaces
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Hydrophilic
Substances that dissolve in water
Polar - Sugars
Ionic - Salts
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Hydrophobic
Substances that are insoluble in water
| Non-polar - fats, oils, waxes
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Dissociate*
Ions move away from the rest of the molecule
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Hydroxide Ion*
Negative and basic
| High pH
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Hydrogen Ion*
Positive and acidic
| Low pH
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Cell*
Smallest unit of life
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Prokaryotic
Highly adaptive
No nucleus
Simple in organization
Archaea, Bacteria
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Eukaryotic
Membrane surrounding nucleus
More complex in organization
Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals
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Plasma Membrane
Boundary surrounding the cell
Controls what goes in and out of cell
All cells have
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Genetic material: DNA
Located in a membrane-bound nucleus for eukaryotic cells
| All cells have
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Cytoplasm
Semi-fluid matrix containing enzymes, ribosomes (and organelles in eukaryotes)
All cells have
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Nucleoid
Where genetic material is found
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Composition of an Atom
Nucleus - center of atom that holds DNA
Proton - positively charged particles
Neutrons - uncharged particles
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Macromolecule
A large molecule, made up of smaller building blocks or subunits
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Macromolecules that provide energy
Carbohydrates - Sugars
Lipids - Fatty Acids
Proteins - Amino Acids
Nucleic Acids - Nuleotides
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Organic molecule
Molecules from living creatures
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Acids
pH of 6 to 0
| 0 being most acidic
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Basic
pH of 8 to 14
| 14 being most basic
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Carbohydrates Functions
Sugars
- Energy source
- Structural component
- Cell-cell communication
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Lipids Functions
Fatty Acids
- Concentrated energy source
- Structural components of cell membranes (Phospholipids & Cholesterol)
- Communication (Steroid hormones)
- Protects from water (Waxes)
47
Proteins
Amino acids with the following functions
- structural component of cells
- control of metabolic reactions: enzymes
- growth and repair
- communication (protein hormones & cell receptors)
- energy source
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides
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Dehydration Synthesis
Removal of water to add monomer units to make a bigger bond
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Hydrolysis
Addition of OH and H groups of water to break a bond between monomers
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Saturated Fatty Acids
2H per internal carbon
- found in animal products, coconut products
- usually solid at room temperature
- increase risk of heart disease
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Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
<2H per internal carbon
- found in olive oil and avocado
- one double bond
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Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
<2H per internal carbon
| - more than one double bond
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Phospholipids
A lipid that is the major component of the plasma membrane; phospholipids are structurally similar to fats, but contain a phosphorus atom and have two, not three, fatty acid chains
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Primary Structure of Proteins
sequence of amino acids in chain
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Secondary Structure of Proteins
Folded structure due to hydrogen bonds between the amino and acid groups of amino acids
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Tertiary Structure of Proteins
Three dimensional folded structure due to attractions and repulsions between R groups (can attract and can repel each other)
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Quaternary Structure of Proteins
Association of two or more protein chains
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1st Law of Thermodynamics
In a closed system, energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to another
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2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Energy conversions result in a loss of useful energy
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Chemical Reaction
The breaking and forming of chemical bonds
| Reactants are converted to products
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Endergonic reaction
Energy is consumed
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Exergonic reaction
Energy is released
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ATP
- Adenosine triphosphate
- Used for short term energy storage in the bonds of ATP molecules
- This potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy and used to fuel life-sustaining chemical reactions
Storage: An energy input from the break down of food attaches ADP to phosphate and energy making ATP
Release: ATP is broken down into ADP, phosphate, and energy
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Electron Carriers
Donate to chemical reactions in the cell by
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Coupled Reactions
Energy released form an exergonic reaction is used to power an endergonic reaction
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Activation energy
The minimum energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction (regardless of whether the reaction releases or consumers energy
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Active site
The part of an enzyme to which reactants (or substrates) bund and undergo a chemical reaction
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Catalyst
Speeds up a reaction without being changed by the reaction
| Lowers activation energy for increased reaction
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Enzymes
- Biological catalysts that are usually mad e of protein
- All enzymes have specific activation sites for the substrates in the reactions that they catalyze
- Speed up biological reactions by lowering the activation energy for the reaction
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Substrate
The molecule on which an enzyme acts. The active site on the enzyme binds to the substrate, initiating a chemical reaction; for example, the active site on the enzyme lactase bunds to the substrate lactose, breaking it down into the two simple sugars glucose and galactose
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Metabolic reactions
Chemical reactions of living organisms which are smoothed and made efficient by enzymes
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Thermal optimum
Temperature at which enzyme is most effective
| - Once passed, enzyme begins to denature until the point where it irreversibly denatures
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Product
What is released by the active site on an enzyme; produced by the chemical reaction of two substates
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Temperature affects on enzymes
Can speed reaction until a point. Once a certain temperature is reached, enzyme unfolds and is unable to facilitate a chemical reaction. Can only overheat enzyme, cooling will not damage enzyme.
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pH affects on enzymes
Both too high or too low pH will unfold and damage protein
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Carbohydrates
- Molecules that contain mostly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
| - Function: energy source, structural component, cell-cell communication
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Lipids
- Made primarily from atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- Function: concentrated energy source, structural components of cell membrane, communication (steroid), protection from water (waxes)
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Structures of Carbohydrates
- Monosaccharides: one sugar unit
- Disaccharides: two sugar units
- Polysaccharides: many sugar units
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Disaccharides
Sucrose (table sugar) : glucose + fructose
Lactose (milk sugar) : glucose + galactose
Maltose (seed sugar) : glucose + glucose
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Polysaccharides
Starch (storage in plants)
Glycogen (storage in animals)
Cellulose (plant cell walls, indigestible)
Chitin (exoskeletons of insects, fungal cell wall)
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Structure of Lipids
- Triglyceride: one glycerol, three fatty acids
- Saturated: 2H per internal carbon
- Unsaturated:
- - monounsaturated: one double bond
- - polyunsaturated: more than one double bond
- Phospholipid: component of cell membranes
- Steroids: build on carbon rings
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Structure of Proteins
- Primary Structure
- Secondary
- Quaternary
- Tertiary
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Tertiary Structure of Proteins
- three dimensional folded structure due to attractions and repulsions between R groups
- can be covalent and hydrogen bonds, ionic, hydrophilic, and hydrophobic interactions
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Quaternary Structure of Proteins
- association of two or more protein chains
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Secondary Structure of Proteins
-coiling by hydrogen bonding between the amino and acid group
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Primary Structure of Proteins
- sequence of amino acids in chain
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Proteins Functions
- Structural component of cells, control of metabolic reactions (enzymes), growth and repair, communication, energy source
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Activators
A chemical within a cell that bunds to an enzyme, altering the enzyme's shape or structure in a way that causes the enzyme to catalyze a reaction
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Inhibitors
A chemical within a cell that binds to an enzyme or substrate molecule and in doing so reduces the enzyme's ability to catalyze a reaction
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Feedback inhibition
when the product of the reaction inhibits the first enzyme in the pathway
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Competitive inhibitor
binds to activation site
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Non-competitive inhibitor
binds to a different site changing the shape of the activation site preventing the substrate from binding
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Enzyme Concentration
- Increasing Enzyme Concentration will increase the rate of reaction, as more enzymes will be colliding with substrate molecules.
- However, this too will only have an effect up to a certain concentration, where the Enzyme Concentration is no longer the limiting factor.
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Substrate Concentration
- Describes the number of substrate molecules in a solution.
- raises the rate of enzyme activity till it cant be raised anymore
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Essential features of a cell
Plasma membrane, genetic material, and cytoplasm
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Plasma membrane
A complex, thin, two-layered membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of the cell, holding the contents in place and regulating what enters and leaves the cell; also called the cell membrane
- cell to cell recognition
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Genetic Material
DNA; located in a membrane-bound nucleus for eukaryotic cells
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Cytoplasm
Semi-fluid matrix containing enzymes, ribosomes, (and organelles in eukaryotic)
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Prokaryotic cell
- A cell bound by a plasma membrane enclosing the cell contents (cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes); there is no nucleaus or other organelles
- Plant cell
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Prokaryotic cell components
- bacterial flagellum, capsule, cell wall, infolded plasma membrane, nucleoid, pilus, plasma membrane, plasmid, ribosomes
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Bacterial flagellum in Prokaryotic Cell
Allows prokaryotic cell movement
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Capsule or Slime layer in Prokaryotic Cell
Protects prokaryotic cell from drying and protects against white blood cells
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Infolded Plasma Membranes in Prokaryotic Cell
Metabolism and cell division in prokaryotic cells
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Cell wall in Prokaryotic Cell
Supports prokaryotic cell and maintains shape
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Pilus in Prokaryotic Cell
Surface projection used for transfer of genetic material in prokaryotic cell
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Plasmid in Prokaryotic Cell
- Small circular DNA inside prokaryotic cell
- Replicates independently
- Genes for antibiotic resistance
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Nucleoid in Prokaryotic Cell
Cytoplasmic region in prokaryotic cell that contains the genetic material, DNA
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Ribosomes in Prokaryotic Cell
Produce protein in the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell
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Eukaryotic cell components
cell wall, centriole, chloroplast, cilia, cytoskeleton, flagella, Golgi complex, lysosome, microtubules, mitochondrion, nucleolus, nucleus, peroxisome, plasma membrane, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuole
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Cell wall in Eukaryotic cell
- Controls cell shape, protects, supports
| - Made of carbohydrates
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Nucleus in Eukaryotic cell
- Carrier of genetic material
- Governs cell activities
- Directs cell reproduction
- Surrounded by membrane: nuclear envelope
- Contains nucleolus - produces ribosomes
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Nucleolus in Eukaryotic cell
Site of ribosome assembly
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Ribosomes in Eukaryotic cell
- Site of protein synthesis
| - Can be free in cytoplasm or attached to membrane
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum in Eukaryotic cell
- Produces proteins
| - Prepares proteins for export
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Lipid synthesis
- Drug detoxification
- Transport of proteins from RER
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Golgi Complex in Eukaryotic cell
Collects, modifies, packages and distributes protein from RER
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Lysosome in Eukaryotic cell
Contains digestive enzymes to digest food in protists or destroy aging organelles
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Valcuole in Eukaryotic cell
- Central vacuole (plants) stores waste, maintains turgidity (resists pressure)
- Contractile vacuole (protists) maintains water balance
- Food vacuole (protists) fuses with lysosome for digestion
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Peroxisome in Eukaryotic cell
removes harmful oxidants from cell
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Chloroplast in Eukaryotic cell
Photosynthesis: uses light energy to produce organic molecules in plants and protists
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Mitochondrion in Eukaryotic cell
Produces energy by breaking down organic molecules
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Cytoskeleton in Eukaryotic cell
- Maintains cell shape
- allows for cell movement
- anchors organelles and proteins
- directs transport of materials
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Cilia and Flagella in Eukaryotic cell
- Cell movement in protists, animal sperm
| - Move substances across cell surface in lungs, fallopian tubes
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Centriole in Eukaryotic cell
Gives rise to basal bodies that produce cilia and flagella
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Microtubules in Eukaryotic cell
One of three types of protein fibers that make up the eukaryotic cytoskeleton, providing it with structure and shape. There are the thickest elements in the cytoskeleton; they resemble rigid, hollow tubes, functioning as tracks to which molecules and organelles within the cell may attach and be moved along; also help pull apart chromosomes for cell division
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Endosymbiosis theory
Theory of the origin of eukaryotes that holds that, in the past, two different types of prokaryotes engaged in a close partnership and eventually one, capable of performing photosynthesis, was subsumed into the other, a larger prokaryote. The smaller made some of its photosynthetic energy available to the host and, over time, the two become symbiotic and eventually become a single more complex organism in which the smaller had evolved into the chloroplast of the new organism.
128
Invagination
The folding in of a membrane or layer of tissue so that an outer surface becomes an inner surface
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Cholesterol
One of the sterols, a group of lipids important in regulating growth and development; an important component of most cell membranes, helping the membrane maintain its flexibility
