BIO 322 Exam 1 Lectures 1-5 Flashcards
(189 cards)
1
Q
What did John Ray of Cambridge University (1627-1705) propose?
A
Classification of flowering plants based on cotyledons and the “Imperfect” category
2
Q
What are Cotyledons?
A
Embryonic leaves
3
Q
What is the Imperfect category?
A
Created by John ray to describe plants having no flowers or seeds (ferns, mosses, etc.)
4
Q
What is the cotyledon classification proposed by John Ray?
A
Dicotyledons and monocotyledons
5
Q
Are there any exceptions to the cotyledon classification?
A
Few flowering plants have more than 2 cotyledons and some remain at soil level or underground and are not photosynthetic.
6
Q
What are dicotyledons?
A
They have 2 embryonic leaves and their apical meristem is at the top of their seedling.
7
Q
What are monocotyledons?
A
They have one embryonic leaf and their apical meristem is at the bottom of their seedling/part of the seedling.
8
Q
Monocotyledons are derived from dicotyledons. T/F
A
True
9
Q
Dicots are derived from monocots. T/F
A
False
10
Q
What is the simple definition of viridiplantae?
A
Green plants
11
Q
About how many species are part of the Viridiplantae group?
A
450,000-500,000
12
Q
What plants are included in Viridiplantae?
A
Land plants (Embryophyta) and photosynthetic green algae
13
Q
What do Viridiplantae share in common?
A
Accessory pigment chlorophyll b, chlorophyll a, and starch production and storage in the chloroplast
14
Q
What does monophyletic mean?
A
Groups have a single common ancestor
15
Q
Are green algae and land plants monophyletic?
A
No, but they have a series of sequentially splitting lineages
16
Q
How did green algae become photosynthetic?
A
An ancestor engulfed a cyanobacterium-like prokaryote approximately 1.7 billion years ago.
17
Q
What are the three genomes of Viridiplantae?
A
Nuclear, mitochondrial, and plastid
18
Q
We need to split Dicotyledons into several groups each at the same taxonomic rank to reflect evolution and recognizes the Monocots. T/F
A
True
19
Q
What are the three groups of Dicots?
A
Eudicots, Ana Grade, Magnoliids
20
Q
When did ancestors of land plants start colonizing land?
A
Around 500 Ma ago (Ordovician period)
21
Q
When did large ferns and other plants grow to large stature?
A
By the middle Devonian (419-359 Ma ago)
22
Q
What happened at the end of the Devonian?
A
Seed plants appeared
23
Q
What are the challenges of living on land?
A
Support, UV Radiation, Dessication, Support and male gametes cannot Swim to female gametes (SUDS)
24
Q
What are the advantages to living on land?
A
Sunlight is abundant, CO2 is more readily available than in water, no Predators, Tolerance to dryness or remain along wet areas (SCPT)
25
What are land plants called?
Embryophytes
25
About how many species of land plants and seed plants are there?
400,000 species of land plants and 370,000 species of seed plants (Angiosperms and Gymnosperms)
26
What are the protected reproductive organs in land plants (Embryophytes)?
Archegonia and antheridia
27
What are characteristics of land plants (Embryophytes)?
Sporophyte multicellular, cuticle present
28
How does the embryo develop in land plants (Embryophytes)?
They develop inside the archegonium receiving maternal nutrition.
29
How do embryos receive maternal nutrition?
By developing inside the archegonium
30
What are the three adaptations of alternation of generations?
Haplodiplontic, Sporangia, Gametangia
31
What do diploid sporangia (singular sporangium) produce?
Haploid spores by meiosis
32
How are gametophytes produced in haplontic/diplontic?
Spores divide/proliferate via mitotic divisions
33
How are gametangia produced and what are they?
Some cells of the gametophyte differentiate and produce sex cells which become gametangia. Gametangia are singular gametangiums.
34
What is a female gametangium?
Archegonium
35
What is the male gametangium?
Antheridium
36
Draw out the process of haplodiplontic alternation of generations.
37
What protects the embryo during haplodiplontic alternation of generations?
Female gametophyte
38
How many kinds of spores do heterosporous plants produce?
Two
39
What is a meristem?
Tissue containing undifferentiated cells
40
What are apical meristems?
Produce cells that differentiate into shoots and leaves and produce vascular tissues.
41
Where are apical meristems found?
The tip of shoots
42
Do root tips have a meristem?
Yes
43
Side roots arise from meristems.
False, they do not arise from meristems but will have a meristem at the tip.
44
What does indeterminate growth in meristems of stems lead to?
Continuous production of leaves, nodes and axillary shoots
45
Plants continue to generate new growth and organs. T/F
Yes
46
What type of plants are a combination of old and new growth structures?
Woody plants
47
What is the life span of annuals?
Specified life span ranging from a few weeks to a few months. They grow, flower, and reproduce in ONE growing season.
48
What is the life span of perennials?
No specific life span. Density independent factors like weather, drought, disease, etc. determine death.
49
What is the life span of biennial plants?
They live for two years. The first year of growth forms a vegetative rosette that flowers and fructifies in the second year.
50
What are the function of cuticles?
They protect leaves and stems from dessication
51
What do cuticles produce?
Stomata
52
What is the function of flavonoids?
Protection from UV light
53
Name a few defenses to herbivory (predation).
Spines. Poisonous secondary metabolites: alkaloids, tannins, cardiac glycosides
54
Name three poisonous secondary metabolites.
Alkaloids, tannins, cardiac glycosides
55
What are two adaptations that are specific to seed plants?
Seeds and pollen
56
Why are seeds important?
They help adapt to drought through embryo protection, dormancy, and food reserves.
57
Why is pollen important?
It allowed seed plants to adapt to fertilization on land.
58
What is sporopollenin?
The outer layer of pollen (exine) and spores
59
What is sporopollenin composed of?
A mixture of biopolymers
60
What is special about sporopollenin?
It is one of the most chemically inert biological polymers (fatty acids, phenolics, carotenoids). Also, pollen exines can last for hundreds of millions of years.
61
Why did seeds change the course of plant evolution?
They enabled their bearers to become the dominant producers in most terrestrial ecosystems
62
When did seed plants originate?
About 360 million years ago
63
What makes up a seed?
An embryo and nutrients surround by a protective coat
64
What is one way that seeds disperse over long distances?
Wind
65
What are the evolutionary advantages of seeds over spores?
1. They may remain dormant for days to years, until conditions are favorable for germination.
2. Seeds have a supply of stored food.
3. They may be transported long distances by wind, water, or animals.
66
How is glucose produced by plants?
Photosynthesis
67
Why is glucose important to plants?
All other organic compounds are derived from glucose, except for a few compounds produced by endosymbionts.
68
What is responsible for changing global climate?
Accumulation of atmospheric CO2
69
How do plants help with global climate?
They remove atmospheric CO2 during photosynthesis.
70
Can plants reverse the accumulation?
Release of CO2 outstrips assimilation
71
Equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
72
All life on Earth evolved from ___
a common ancestor
73
How do scientists map how organisms are related to each other?
Constructing phylogenetic trees
74
Define phylogeny
The evolutionary history and the relationships among a species or group of species.
75
Define systematics
The study of organisms with the purpose of deriving their relationships.
76
Define taxonomy
Science of naming and grouping species to construct a classification system using Carl Linnaeus's hierarchical model
77
Define nomenclature
A part of taxonomy and focuses on developing and maintaining a system for creating names
78
Define taxon (taxa, plural)
A group of organisms or populations of an organism at any rank that form a unit
79
What are the goals that taxonomists adopted at the end of the 19th century?
1. Developing a natural system of classification, in which closely related organisms are grouped
2. Assigning plant names on the basis of phylogenetic relationships
80
What started because of pharmacology?
Efforts to understand the diversity of plants and to classify it
81
What did ancient cultures believe in regarding plants?
Plants possessed the ability to cure disease incentivize those societies to support the study of plants.
82
Define pharmacopaeia
A list of medicinal drugs with their effects and directions for use
83
What was the first pharmacopaeia like?
It was a Sumerian cuneiform tablet. Most medicinals came from plants, especially odiferous species.
84
What herbs were used in the first pharmacopaeia?
Cassia (cinnamon relative), myrtle, asafoetida, and thyme
85
What trees were used in the first pharmacopaeia?
Willow, pear, fir, fig, and dates
86
What were medicinals in the first pharmacopaeia prepared from?
Seed, root, branch, bark, or gum
87
What was Discordes' pharmacopaeia?
De Materia Medica
88
Why was De Materia Medica important to pharmacology?
It was the principal book used for the next 1500 years. It became the precursor of modern treatments.
89
Who proposed the concept of Genus?
Bauhin
90
What did Bauhin do?
He described 6,000 species, classified trees, shrubs, herbs, etc., and created binomial names.
91
Who is Carl Linnaeus?
Swedish botanist and zoologist (1707-1778)
92
Why is Carl Linnaeus important to botany?
He was the first to use binomials consistently throughout his publications to classify species.
93
Who is Carl Linnaeus?
The Father of Taxonomy
94
Why was Carl Linnaeus' Systema Naturae important?
It had multiple editions. Each new edition was revised to include more species.
95
What are the disadvantages of 'common' names?
Most plants have no vernacular name. Common names are not universal or consistent (can be applied to different species and many names can apply to one species).
96
What makes up a scientific (latin or binomial) name?
Genus species and authority (ex. Vicia faba L.)
97
What is the authority in naming?
Author, typically abbreviated
98
How are new species named?
International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
99
Why is the ICNCP different from ICN?
It is independent from zoological nomenclature, sets rules for naming new taxa, and rules for determining the correct name of a taxon.
100
What are the principles of Botanical Nomenclature?
1. Independent from zoological and bacteriological Codes
2. Each taxon of a particular circumscription, position and rank can have only one correct name.
3. The correct name is the earliest legitimate name (principle of priority).
4. (Nearly) every scientific name references a type or types.
101
Define type.
Specimen permanently associated with a name
102
Define holotype
Specimen upon which the taxon name is based; designated in the publication of the name
103
Define isotype
A duplicate of the holotype collected at the same time and place by the same collector
104
Define lectotype
A specimen selected from the original collected material chosen to serve as the type when the holotype is destroyed or permanently lost
105
Define neotype
Specimen derived from a non-original collection that is selected to serve as the type
106
Where are specimens stored?
Herbaria
107
How many herbaria are around the world?
About 3200 and each has an acronym
108
It is hard to say which is the best herbarium as each institution has a different set of collections. T/F
True
109
What classifies an herbaria as influential?
Having more than 5-7 million specimens, more than 100 years old, and have had famous botanists on staff that sponsored many expeditions to remote or unexplored areas of the planet
110
If to argue, which is the best herbarium?
K or Royal Botanic Gardens Kew in West London. They have 7 million specimens that represent 95% of all the plants of the world. They have 330,000 type specimens.
111
Important Herbaria of the USA
NY, New York Botanical Garden
HUH, Harvard University Herbaria
TEX-LL, University of Texas, Austin
112
When was TEX-LL founded?
1912 by first curator Mary S. Young
113
What is TEX-LL?
The B.L. Turner Plant resources Center
114
Why is TEX-LL important?
It has over 1 million specimens with around 8500 types. It is the best collection of Texas plants and Mexican plants. It is one of the best collections of sunflowers in the world.
115
What are the levels of taxonomic categories?
Kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, species
116
What is the specific ending for the division classification level?
-phyta
117
What is the specific ending for class classification level?
-opsida
118
What is the specific ending for order classification level?
-ales
119
What is the specific ending for family classification level?
-aceae
120
What are some names that have no formal rank?
Eudicots, Magnoliids, Ana Grade
121
Why are names with on formal rank important?
They designate important clades with strong support in phylogenetic analyses that include groups positioned between recognized taxonomic categories.
122
The higher the taxonomic category the more exclusive it is. T/F
False. They are more inclusive; they include more species in it.
123
What is artificial classification?
It uses characters that are easy to observe and are not focused on phylogeny.
124
What is the goal of artificial classification?
To arrive at the right identification of a species. (ex. guides to flowers in a region)
125
What are the three assumptions of cladistics?
1. All organisms are related by descent from a common ancestor
2. Speciation occurs by splits of one species into two, never more.
3. Traits change through time. Polarity of character change.
126
What does cladistics compare?
Ingroups and outgroups
127
Define ingroup
Group of interest
128
Define outgroup
A group outside of the group of interest (ingroup); closely related to the ingroup, the various species being studied
129
The outgroup is a group that has diverged before the ingroup. T/F
True
130
What do systematists do?
Compare each ingroup species with the outgroup to differentiate between shared derived (synapomorphies) and shared ancestral characteristics
131
What are synapomorphies?
Groups with shared derived characteristics
132
Define monophyletic
A valid clade; signifies that it consists of the ancestor species and all of its descendants
133
Define paraphyletic grouping
Consists of an ancestral species and some (but not all) of the descendants
134
What is polyphyletic grouping?
Includes distantly related species but does not include their most recent common ancestor
135
What makes a clade?
Every descendant from an ancestral species
136
What does maximum parsimony assume?
That the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events is most likelyW
137
What are evolutionary events?
Appearances of shared derived characters
138
What does the principle of maximum likelihood state?
Given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events. Maximum likelihood means that only one tree is produced.
139
What are Bayesian Statistics?
Uses Bayes theorem to compute and update the conditional probability of an event. Uses probaility and priors.
140
What does probability express?
A degree of belief in an event
141
What are priors?
Prior knowledge
142
Why are priors important to Bayesian Statistics?
They are used to calculate posterior probabilities of events
143
What are the three domains?
Bacteria (with Cyanobacteria), Archaea, and Eukarya
144
What website summarizes relevant scientific research for all plant groups?
Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, version 14
145
What are the two main divisions of the cell cycle?
Growth phase and division phase
146
What is the part of the cell cycle without division named?
Interphase
147
What phases are detected in interphase?
G1, S, and G2
148
When are bark cells more protective?
When they are dead
149
Where are cells that never stop dividing?
In the growing points at the tips of roots and shoots (and those that produce wood)
150
What is division of the nucleus called?
Karyokinesis
151
What are the two types of karyokinesis?
Mitosis and meiosis
152
What type of division is mitosis?
Duplication
153
What type of division is meiosis?
Reduction
154
What is division of the cytoplasm called?
Cytokinesis
155
During mitosis, what does each cell half typically contain?
Mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and vacuoles
156
What happens during prophase in mitosis?
The preprophase band forms just inside the plasma membrane.
157
What does the preprophase band identify in mitosis?
The plane of division; marks the region where the new cell wall will attach to the existing wall
158
What is the phragmoplast?
A set of short microtubules that forms in the center of the cell.
159
What do phragmoplasts do?
It traps dictyosome vesicles. The vesicles fuse into a large, flat, plate-like vesicle. Within this structure, two new primary walls and a middle lamella begin to form.
160
What forms the cell plate?
The phragmoplast, vesicle, and walls; these grow outward until they fuse with those of the mother cell.
161
How is vacuole division accomplished?
With a phragmosome
162
What is a phragmosome?
A set of microtubules, actin filaments, and cytoplasm
163
What is meiosis referred to as?
Reduction division
164
How do you get a diploid zygote in meiosis?
Haploid sex cells (gametes) must fuse together
165
What type of cells does meiosis produce?
Four 1n cells from one 2n cell
166
When does meiosis occur?
In the production of reproductive cells
167
Meiosis involves one rounds of division. T/F
False; meiosis I and meiosis II
168
Does the S phase occur after the first division in meiosis?
It does not
169
What happens when karyokinesis occurs without cytokinesis?
The production of coenocytes, multinucleate cells
170
How does cell division in coenocytes occur without nuclear division?
By forming cell walls around nuclei long after nuclei were formed.
171
When is cell division in coenocytes common?
Algae, fungi, and endosperm
172
What are polyploids?
Organisms with three or more sets of chromosomes
173
What is Polyploidy or Whole Genome Duplication (WGD)?
A major mechanism in adaptation and speciation that is in 100% of all plants in their evolutionary history
174
According to Comai (2005)...
Flowering plants produce polyploids in a 1/100,00 frequency (gametes)
175
What are the mechanisms of polyploid formation?
1. Non-reduction of gametes during meiosis
2. Somatic doubling of chromosomes
3. Polyspermy
176
What is polyspermy?
An egg fertilized by several sperm nuclei
177
Why is genomic repatterning important?
It can increase genetic variability and is especially important in the early establishment of polyploids.
178
What do polyploids populations represent?
Small populations where the effects of genetic drift are considerable
179
Describe polyploid lineages that have survived
They are a biased subset and are the ones with stable genomic configurations
180
When are polyploids more likely to establish?
In shifting environments (hybridization between once allopatric species) or new environments where competition may be limited
181
What is the main characteristic of autopolyploids?
Multiple sets of chromosomes of the same species
182
When are autopolyploids produced?
In nature via unreduced gametes
183
What commercial crops are examples of autopolyploid?
Alfalfa, bananas, peanuts, and potatoes
184
Why have several autopolyploids been artificially produced?
To increase crop yield or obtain larger fruits or flowers due to their exhibition of hybrid vigor
185
What is autopolyploid speciation a product of?
Cell division error in a 2n cell resulting in a tetraploid cell. When meiosis occurs, a new species will be created based on the Biological Species Concept
186
What are allopolyploids?
Combination of genomes of different species
187
How are allopolyploids produced?
From chromosome doubling after hybridization or fusion of unreduced gametes
188
What are examples of allopolyploids in commercial crops?
Blueberries, oats, certain species of cotton, strawberries, and wheat
