bio final Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
What are the characteristics that generally distinguish animals from other types of organisms?
A
Eukaryotic, multicellular, specialized tissues (almost all), motile (minus sponges), heterotrophic, most reproduce sexually
2
Q
Define radial symmetry.
A
Symmetrical like a pie; can be sliced across multiple ways and each piece is symmetrical.
3
Q
What are the germ layers associated with radial symmetry?
A
Diploblastic (2 germ layers: ectoderm and endoderm)
4
Q
Define bilateral symmetry.
A
Symmetrical only by vertical slicing; distinct front, back, top, and bottom halves.
5
Q
What are the germ layers associated with bilateral symmetry?
A
Triploblastic (3 germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)
6
Q
What does the endoderm layer develop into?
A
Innermost layer; develops into organs.
7
Q
What does the mesoderm layer develop into?
A
Middle layer; develops into tissues, muscles, and bones.
8
Q
What does the ectoderm layer develop into?
A
Outer layer; develops into skin.
9
Q
Define coelom.
A
A fluid-filled space between endoderm and ectoderm, completely lined with mesoderm.
10
Q
What are the advantages of having a coelom?
A
Complex organ development, efficient circulation, protection from shock, facilitates movement.
11
Q
Define pseudocoelom.
A
A fluid-filled space between endoderm and ectoderm, with mesoderm only lining the ectoderm side.
12
Q
What is segmentation in animals?
A
Division of an animal into repeating body parts allowing for specialization.
13
Q
What is cephalization?
A
Concentration of sensory organs in the head region.
14
Q
Identify the four types of animal tissues.
A
- Epithelial
- Nervous
- Connective
- Muscle
15
Q
Define tissues.
A
Grouping of specialized cells that perform the same job.
16
Q
Define organs.
A
Made of specialized tissues to accomplish a specific job.
17
Q
Define organ systems.
A
A group of organs that together accomplish a goal.
18
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
The process by which an organism maintains a stable internal environment.
19
Q
Define negative feedback.
A
Body responds to a signal by doing something of the opposite effect.
20
Q
Define positive feedback.
A
Body sends a signal back in-kind after receiving a signal.
21
Q
What is the role of oxygen in aerobic respiration?
A
Needed to make ATP from the energy stored in glucose.
22
Q
Define incomplete digestive systems.
A
Digestive systems with only one opening for both intake and waste.
23
Q
Define complete digestive systems.
A
Digestive systems with two openings, allowing continuous feeding.
24
Q
Identify the major components of the mammalian digestive system.
A
- Oral Cavity
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Large intestine
25
What is the function of bile in fat digestion?
Emulsifies fats to break large lipid globules into smaller ones.
26
Define vitamins.
Essential organic molecules needed in small quantities.
27
Define minerals.
Essential inorganic molecules needed in small quantities.
28
Identify structural adaptations for different diets.
* Sharper/larger teeth
* Multi-chambered stomachs
* Specialized mouthparts
29
Define open circulatory system.
Blood spills out to cover the organism's innards.
30
Define closed circulatory system.
Blood remains contained in vessels throughout the body.
31
Describe the flow of blood through the mammalian heart.
Body → Inferior vena cava → right atrium → right ventricle → pulmonary artery → lungs → capillaries → pulmonary vein → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta → arteries → body
32
What are the functions of erythrocytes?
Transport gases.
33
What are the functions of leukocytes?
Respond to pathogens.
34
What are the functions of thrombocytes?
Blood clotting.
35
Identify the subdivisions of the human nervous system.
* Central nervous system
* Peripheral nervous system
36
What is the role of sensory neurons?
Carry impulses from receptors to the CNS.
37
What is the role of motor neurons?
Carry impulses away from the CNS.
38
What is the role of interneurons?
Filter and process incoming information and formulate a response.
39
What are the parts of a typical neuron?
* Cell body
* Axon
* Dendrites
* Synapse
40
What is resting potential?
State of a nerve cell not actively conducting impulses.
41
What is depolarization?
Na+ channels open and Na+ flows into the cell.
42
What is repolarization?
K+ channels open and K+ flows out of the cell.
43
What is action potential?
Change in membrane potential that propagates along the axon.
44
Define neurotransmitter.
Chemical messenger that transmits signals across a synapse.
45
Define hormone.
Chemical substance produced by endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream.
46
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Receives input from the nervous system and regulates bodily functions.
47
What are the primary functions of hormones in the human body?
Regulate a wide range of processes by influencing cellular activity, gene expression, metabolism, and homeostasis.
## Footnote
Hormones play crucial roles in growth, stress response, blood sugar regulation, and digestion speed.
48
What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
Receives input from the nervous system and secretes numerous hormones in response, controlling many aspects of homeostasis in mammals.
## Footnote
It regulates functions such as temperature, thirst, and hunger.
49
What hormone triggers the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary?
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH).
## Footnote
GnRH is crucial for reproductive functions.
50
What are the functions of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)?
* FSH: Ensures proper functioning of the gonads
* LH: Works with FSH for gonad function
## Footnote
Both hormones are essential for fertility in both males and females.
51
What is the function of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?
Affects water balance through the kidneys.
## Footnote
ADH helps to concentrate urine and maintain body hydration.
52
What is cortisol and its primary role?
Stress hormone that helps regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress adaptation by increasing glucose availability.
## Footnote
It is secreted by the adrenal glands.
53
What is the role of insulin in blood sugar regulation?
Lowers blood glucose levels.
## Footnote
Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose by body cells.
54
What are the main hormones produced by the thyroid, and their functions?
* Thyroxine (T4): Regulates metabolic rate
* Triiodothyronine (T3): Regulates growth and development
## Footnote
Both hormones are crucial for overall metabolism.
55
How does the pancreas regulate blood sugar levels?
Releases glucagon when blood sugar is low and insulin when blood sugar is high.
## Footnote
This process exemplifies negative feedback in homeostasis.
56
What are the male hormones involved in reproduction?
* GnRH: Triggers FSH and LH release
* FSH: Stimulates spermatogenesis
* LH: Triggers testosterone release
* Testosterone: Stimulates spermatogenesis and inhibits GnRH
## Footnote
These hormones are key to male reproductive health.
57
What are the female hormones involved in reproduction?
* GnRH: Same function as in males
* FSH: Stimulates growth of follicles and release of estrogen
* LH: Spike causes ovulation
* Estrogen: Causes spike in FSH and LH
* Progesterone: Inhibits GnRH, FSH, and LH
## Footnote
These hormones are vital for the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
58
Differentiate between asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
* Sexual reproduction: Combination of reproductive cells from two individuals
* Asexual reproduction: Involves a singular parent organism producing genetically identical offspring
## Footnote
Sexual reproduction leads to genetic diversity, while asexual reproduction allows for rapid population increase.
59
Describe the regulation of digestion by the endocrine and nervous systems.
Regulated through the release of hormones that trigger specific digestive responses depending on food presence, ensuring homeostasis via negative feedback loops.
## Footnote
The nervous system can also initiate digestive processes.
60
What are the five major human senses and their receptor classifications?
* Taste: Chemoreceptor
* Smell: Chemoreceptor
* Hearing: Mechanoreceptors
* Sight: Photoreceptors
* Touch: Mechanoreceptors
## Footnote
Each sense uses specialized receptors to detect specific stimuli.
61
What are the three neurons involved in a reflex arc?
* Sensory neuron: Responds to stimuli
* Interneuron: Connects sensory and motor neurons
* Motor neuron: Carries out the response
## Footnote
The reflex arc allows for quick responses to stimuli.
62
Define immunity.
The ability of the body to defend itself against foreign invaders.
## Footnote
Immunity involves both adaptive and innate defense mechanisms.
63
What is the difference between adaptive and innate immunity?
* Adaptive: Specific, developed immunity targeting specific invaders
* Innate: General, non-specific first response to harmful substances
## Footnote
Adaptive immunity develops over time, while innate immunity is present at birth.
64
What are the main characteristics of viruses?
Acellular, parasitic entities that lack a plasma membrane, internal organelles, and metabolic processes; can evolve and reproduce only within a host.
## Footnote
Viruses are not classified as living organisms.
65
Describe the steps of viral replication.
* Attachment
* Insertion
* Replication
* Assembly
* Release
## Footnote
These steps can follow lytic or lysogenic pathways.
66
What are the beneficial effects of viruses on humans?
* Control insect pests
* Advances in molecular biology and biotechnology
* Gene cloning and therapy
* Defense against bacteriophages
## Footnote
Viruses can have applications in medicine and agriculture.
67
What are antibodies and their function in adaptive immunity?
Produced by B cells to dispose of antigens, with specific receptors that connect to specific antigens for disposal.
## Footnote
Antibodies play a key role in the immune response.
68
What is the cell-mediated response in adaptive immunity?
Specialized T-cells activate and attack affected cells without relying on antibodies.
## Footnote
This response is crucial for fighting intracellular pathogens.
69
What is immunological memory?
The ability of the immune system to remember past infections and respond more rapidly upon re-exposure.
## Footnote
Vaccines exploit this memory to provide immunity.
70
Identify the components of the lymphatic system.
* Lymph vessels
* Lymph nodes
* Lymphoid organs (thymus, spleen)
* Lymph fluid
## Footnote
The lymphatic system is essential for immune response and fluid balance.
71
What challenges do terrestrial animals face compared to aquatic animals?
* Gravity
* Desiccation
* Water fertilization and development
* UV radiation
## Footnote
Terrestrial animals have evolved adaptations to overcome these challenges.
72
What are the three major types of skeletal systems found in animals?
* Hydrostatic
* Exoskeletons
* Endoskeletons
## Footnote
Each skeletal type has its advantages and disadvantages.
73
What are the three major types of muscles?
* Smooth
* Cardiac
* Skeletal
## Footnote
Each muscle type has distinct functions and locations within the body.
74
What is the basic functional unit of muscle contraction?
Sarcomere, made of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.
## Footnote
Sarcomeres are critical for muscle contraction.
75
What is the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction?
Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, facilitating muscle contraction through ATP and calcium ions.
## Footnote
This theory explains how muscles contract at the cellular level.
76
How do the nervous, muscular, and skeletal systems work together?
The nervous system processes sensory information and controls responses; the muscular system allows movement; the skeletal system supports and protects vital organs.
## Footnote
Together, they enable animals to function and survive in their environments.
77
What adaptations do marine animals have for osmotic regulation?
Fish in saltwater drink seawater, excrete excess salt, and produce concentrated urine to conserve water.
## Footnote
These adaptations are essential for survival in saline environments.
78
What organs and structures are involved in osmotic regulation?
* Kidneys
* Nephrons
* Loop of Henle
* Collecting Duct
* Skin (in some animals)
* Gills (in aquatic animals)
* Excretory System
## Footnote
These components work together to maintain water and solute balance.
79
What is the main function of nephrons?
Filtering, reabsorbing water, and secreting waste into urine.
80
What does the Loop of Henle do?
Creates a concentration gradient that helps the kidneys reabsorb water and conserve it.
81
What is the role of the Collecting Duct in the kidneys?
Reabsorbs water, depending on the body's needs.
82
How does skin help in water conservation in some animals?
Helps conserve water by absorbing or reducing water loss.
83
What is the function of gills in aquatic animals?
Regulate salt and water balance, especially in fish.
84
What structures are involved in the Excretory System?
Kidneys, bladder, and other structures to remove waste and balance water.
85
What is osmotic regulation?
The kidneys regulate the body's water and solute levels.
86
Describe the mechanism of osmotic regulation in the kidneys.
Filter blood to remove excess water and solutes, reabsorb water and essential solutes, concentrate or dilute urine.
87
What is the role of the kidneys in acid-base regulation?
Maintain the pH of the blood by balancing acids and bases.
88
How do kidneys secrete hydrogen ions?
They secrete hydrogen ions into the urine to eliminate excess acidity.
89
What nitrogenous waste do kidneys excrete?
Toxic nitrogen-containing compounds like urea.
90
What does the presence of glucose in urine indicate?
High blood sugar levels exceeding the kidney’s reabsorption capacity.
91
What does the presence of protein in urine typically indicate?
Abnormal condition, possibly due to high blood pressure damaging kidney filters.
92
What is the renal corpuscle composed of?
Glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule.
93
What is the function of the glomerulus?
Filters water, ions, and small molecules from the blood.
94
What is the role of the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?
Reabsorbs nutrients, water, and ions; secretes wastes.
95
What occurs in the descending limb of the Loop of Henle?
Reabsorbs water.
96
What occurs in the ascending limb of the Loop of Henle?
Reabsorbs ions; actively transports sodium, potassium, and chloride.
97
What is the function of the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)?
Adjusts ion and water balance; secretes waste.
98
What processes occur during glomerular filtration?
Filters blood plasma into the nephron.
99
What is tubular reabsorption?
Recovers useful substances like water and glucose.
100
What is tubular secretion?
Removes excess ions and wastes into the filtrate.
101
What are spermatophores?
Sperm packages for female amphibians/reptiles to receive.
102
What is the purpose of the amniotic egg?
Prevents desiccation and mimics aquatic conditions for embryonic development.
103
What is the function of the placenta in mammals?
Supplies nutrients and oxygen to the embryo and removes waste.
104
How do blood glucose levels relate to the muscular system?
Muscle cells use glucose from insulin and glucagon regulates glycogen breakdown.
105
What role does the pancreas play in blood glucose regulation?
Secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate glucose uptake and release.
106
How does the nervous system respond to low blood glucose levels?
Activates the hunger center to stimulate eating.
107
What is the role of the urinary system in glucose regulation?
Reabsorbs glucose in the proximal tubule of nephron.
108
What is the endocrine response to body temperature regulation?
Hypothalamus secretes hormones affecting metabolism.
109
How does the nervous system help regulate body temperature?
Integrates information about internal temperature and initiates shivering or sweating.
110
What is the respiratory system's role in body temperature control?
Gains/losses heat; warms/moistens incoming air.
111
What is the relationship between respiratory rate and acid-base balance?
Varying respiratory rate increases/decreases CO2 levels in the blood.
112
How does the urinary system maintain acid-base balance?
Nephron can reabsorb/excrete H+ ions to alter pH.
113
What buffers blood plasma to maintain pH levels?
Bicarbonate.
