bio section 2 Flashcards
(85 cards)
1
Q
What provides the force for movement in animals from cnidarians to vertebrates?
A
Contractile proteins and muscles
Muscles include striated skeletal, smooth, and cardiac types.
2
Q
What type of muscles do vertebrates use to move?
A
Striated skeletal muscles
These muscles are responsible for body movement.
3
Q
What is the function of smooth muscles?
A
Move material through tubular organs and change the size of tubular openings.
4
Q
What produces the beating of the heart?
A
Cardiac muscles.
5
Q
What is a sarcomere?
A
The basic contractile unit of muscle fibers.
6
Q
What do myofibrils contain?
A
Myosin and Actin filaments.
7
Q
What is located in the H zone of a sarcomere?
A
Myosin.
8
Q
What is contained in the A band of a sarcomere?
A
Both Myosin and Actin filaments.
9
Q
What triggers the shortening of a sarcomere?
A
An action potential.
10
Q
What role does ATP play in muscle contraction?
A
Myosin uses ATP to bring the fiber closer together.
11
Q
What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
A
Calcium binds to troponin, shifting tropomyosin to expose myosin-binding sites.
12
Q
What prevents myosin from attaching to actin binding sites?
A
Tropomyosin.
13
Q
What type of muscle is involuntary and located in the intestines?
A
Smooth muscle.
14
Q
True or False: Smooth muscle has sarcomeres.
A
False.
15
Q
What are intercalated discs?
A
Structures embedded in cardiac muscle tissue.
16
Q
What is the primary function of adipose tissue?
A
Insulation, energy storage, protection, and hormone production.
17
Q
Where is adipose tissue located?
A
Beneath the skin (in the hypodermis).
18
Q
What are the two types of fat distribution in the body?
A
- Subcutaneous Fat
- Visceral Fat
19
Q
What is the most common type of adipose tissue in adults?
A
White Adipose Tissue (WAT).
20
Q
What type of adipose tissue helps generate heat?
A
Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT).
21
Q
What bones comprise the axial skeleton?
A
- Skull
- Ribcage
- Spinal Column
22
Q
True or False: The femur is the strongest bone in the body.
A
True.
23
Q
What connects muscle to bone?
A
Tendon.
24
Q
What connects bone to bone?
A
Ligament.
25
What is the structure of compact bone?
Dense outer layer containing osteons.
26
What is the role of osteocytes?
Bone cells that maintain bone tissue.
27
What type of cartilage is found in the ear?
Elastic Cartilage.
28
What is the primary function of red blood cells?
Transport oxygen using hemoglobin.
29
What is the function of hemoglobin?
Binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it in body tissues.
30
What is the role of the diaphragm during inhalation?
Contracts and flattens to increase lung volume.
31
What is negative pressure ventilation?
The process by which air is drawn into the lungs when thoracic pressure drops.
32
What occurs during gas exchange in the lungs?
Oxygen diffuses into capillaries, and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
33
What happens during exhalation?
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, reducing lung volume.
34
What is the purpose of the extensive branching of bronchioles?
Increases surface area for maximum oxygen absorption.
35
Why is oxygen essential for ATP production?
Keeps the electron transport chain moving.
36
What is the role of the medulla oblongata in respiration?
Detects CO₂ levels in the blood and regulates breathing.
37
What chambers of the heart receive deoxygenated blood?
Right Atrium.
38
What is the function of the left ventricle?
Pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
39
What occurs during the diastole phase of the cardiac cycle?
Ventricles relax and fill with blood.
40
What is blood pressure?
The force of blood against vessel walls.
41
What is the role of bone marrow?
Produces different types of blood cells.
42
What are lymphocytes involved in?
Adaptive immune response.
43
What do neutrophils specialize in?
Fighting bacterial infections.
44
What triggers an immune response?
Antigens.
45
What do antibodies do?
Recognize and neutralize antigens.
46
What is the role of eosinophils in the immune system?
Involved in allergic reactions, fight parasitic infections, help remove immune complexes from your body
## Footnote
Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune response.
47
What are neutrophils specialized for?
Fighting bacterial infections through phagocytosis
## Footnote
Neutrophils are the first responders to infections and are essential for the innate immune response.
48
Define antigens.
Foreign substances (bacteria, viruses, or toxins) that trigger an immune response
## Footnote
Antigens are recognized by the immune system and can provoke the production of antibodies.
49
What are antibodies?
Proteins produced by B cells to recognize and neutralize antigens
## Footnote
Antibodies play a key role in the adaptive immune response.
50
What is the process of phagocytosis?
Engulfing and destroying bacteria
## Footnote
This is a vital mechanism used by neutrophils and macrophages to eliminate pathogens.
51
What are bacteriophages?
Viruses that infect bacteria, help regulate bacterial populations, and can transfer genetic information between bacteria
## Footnote
Bacteriophages are important tools in biotechnology and medicine.
52
List the four major functions of the lymphatic system.
* Collect and drain fluid from the bloodstream
* Return proteins that have left the cells
* Transport absorbed lipids from the small intestine
* Transport foreign particles and cellular debris to lymph nodes
## Footnote
Lymph nodes contain macrophages that help in the immune response.
53
What is natural active immunity?
Antibody production after natural exposure
## Footnote
This type of immunity develops after an individual is exposed to an antigen.
54
What is naturally acquired passive immunity?
Antibodies acquired from mother
## Footnote
This type of immunity is typically transferred through the placenta during pregnancy or through breast milk.
55
What is artificially acquired passive immunity?
Injected with antibodies, such as anti-venom or tetanus
## Footnote
This provides temporary immunity by supplying ready-made antibodies.
56
What is artificially acquired active immunity?
Injected with a weakened version of the virus, such as mRNA vaccines
## Footnote
This stimulates the body's immune system to produce its own antibodies.
57
What are Peyer’s patches?
Small masses of lymphatic tissue found throughout the ileum region of the small intestine
## Footnote
They monitor intestinal bacteria populations and prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria.
58
What is Diastole?
Diastole is the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle where ventricles relax, allowing blood to fill the heart.
59
What occurs during Diastole?
Blood flows into the atria from the vena cava and pulmonary veins. The AV valves (tricuspid & bicuspid) are open, allowing blood into the ventricles.
60
What is Systole?
Systole is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle.
61
What happens during Atrial Systole?
The atria contract, pushing the remaining blood into the ventricles.
62
What happens during Ventricular Systole?
The ventricles contract, forcing blood through the semilunar valves (pulmonary & aortic).
63
What is the pathway of blood from the right ventricle?
The right ventricle sends blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
64
What is the pathway of blood from the left ventricle?
The left ventricle sends blood to the body via the aorta.
65
How does deoxygenated blood enter the heart?
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the inferior & superior vena cava.
66
What happens to blood in the lungs?
Blood reaches the lungs, where CO₂ is expelled and O₂ is absorbed.
67
How does oxygen-rich blood return to the heart?
Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
68
What happens to carbon dioxide in the lungs?
Carbon dioxide from blood diffuses into alveoli and is exhaled out of the body.
69
What is the function of T Cells?
T Cells can create more antibodies and destroy virus-infected cells directly.
70
What are the types of T Cells?
Helper T Cells (CD4+) activate other immune cells. Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8+) kill infected or cancerous cells.
71
What do B Cells do?
B Cells produce antibodies to neutralize pathogens and differentiate into plasma cells, which manufacture antibodies.
72
What can monocytes differentiate into?
Monocytes can differentiate into macrophages.
73
What is the function of macrophages?
Macrophages engulf and digest pathogens and debris.
74
What causes the release of acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft?
A nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of a motor neuron
75
What happens when acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle cell's sarcolemma?
It triggers an action potential that spreads across the muscle fiber
76
How does the action potential travel into the muscle fiber?
Via T-tubules
77
What does the action potential reaching the sarcoplasmic reticulum stimulate?
Release of stored calcium ions (Ca²⁺) into the cytoplasm
78
What role does calcium play in muscle contraction?
Calcium binds to troponin, causing a conformational change that moves tropomyosin away from actin's binding sites
79
What is formed when myosin heads bind to exposed actin filaments?
Cross-bridges
80
What mechanism describes the action of myosin heads pulling actin filaments?
Sliding filament mechanism
81
What occurs during the power stroke?
Myosin heads pivot, pulling actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere
82
What happens when the nerve signal stops?
Calcium is pumped back into the SR, tropomyosin blocks actin's binding sites, and the muscle relaxes
83
What is required for both the power stroke and the reuptake of calcium?
ATP
84
Fill in the blank: A nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of a motor neuron, causing the release of _______ into the synaptic cleft.
acetylcholine
85
True or False: The reuptake of calcium does not require energy.
False
