Biodiversity

Question 1

CITES Agreement

Answer 1

Year: 1973
Purpose: Regulate international trade in endangered species to ensure it does not threaten their survival.
Successes: Banned ivory trade; created Appendices I-III covering over 30,000 species.
Failures/Criticisms: Weak enforcement, illegal trade persists, trade bans can increase poaching due to black market.
Scholar: Elliott (2004)

Question 2

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

Answer 2

Year: 1992 (Rio Earth Summit)
Purpose: Conserve biodiversity, promote sustainable use, ensure fair and equitable sharing of genetic resource benefits.
Successes: Recognized national sovereignty over biodiversity; introduced benefit-sharing concept.
Failures/Criticisms: Lacked enforcement mechanisms; vague on Indigenous knowledge protection.
Scholar: Elliott (2004)

Question 3

Nagoya Protocol

Answer 3

Year: 2010 (entered into force 2014)
Purpose: Establish Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) mechanisms for genetic resources and traditional knowledge.
Successes: Introduced Prior Informed Consent (PIC) and Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT).
Failures/Criticisms: Reinforced state control; limited Indigenous power and recognition; ‘creative ambiguity’.
Scholar: Suiseeya (2014)

Question 4

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

Answer 4

Year: 2022
Purpose: Guide global action to halt biodiversity loss with 23 targets including 30x30 initiative.
Successes: Stronger emphasis on Indigenous rights and ecosystem protection.
Failures/Criticisms: Risk of green grabbing; targets may be symbolic without enforcement.

Question 5

Bioprospecting

Answer 5

Definition: Search for commercially valuable genetic resources, often from biodiversity-rich areas.
Critique: Framed as sustainable but often exploits Indigenous knowledge without fair compensation.
Scholar: Shiva (2007)

Question 6

Biopiracy

Answer 6

Definition: Unauthorized commercial use of Indigenous knowledge and genetic resources.
Example: Patents on neem, turmeric, ayahuasca without fair benefit-sharing.
Scholar: Shiva (2007)

Question 7

Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS)

Answer 7

Concept: Ensures fair distribution of benefits from the use of genetic resources.
Framework: CBD and Nagoya Protocol introduced PIC and MAT as key ABS tools.

Question 8

In-situ Biodiversity

Answer 8

Definition: Conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats in their original locations.
Importance: Maintains ecological processes and traditional knowledge.
Challenges: Sovereignty, economic pressures, land rights conflicts.

Question 9

Biopiracy Case Study - Ayahuasca

Answer 9

U.S. citizen patented sacred plant used in Amazonian spiritual practices.
Outcome: Patent challenged and revoked; highlighted issues with Indigenous consent.
Scholar: Shiva (2007)

Question 10

Biopiracy Case Study - Arogya Pacha

Answer 10

Pharmaceutical company patented medicinal plant used by the Kaui tribe.
Issue: Tribe received only $12,000 while drug’s market value was ~$1 billion.
Scholar: Shiva (2007)

Question 11

Biopiracy Case Study - Neem Tree

Answer 11

Western companies patented neem-based products long used in Indian agriculture.
Criticism: Farmers forced to pay for knowledge they developed.
Outcome: Some patents overturned due to activist pressure.
Scholar: Shiva (2007)