Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

BIOL 310 > BIOL 310 Final > Flashcards

BIOL 310 Final Flashcards

(122 cards)

Start Studying
1
Q

What are some anti-predator adaptations?

A

Predator distraction and alarm calling, camouflage, aposematism, mimicry

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What are the issues with predator alarm calling?

A

Caller attracts attention, had to evolve an understanding of alarm, caller needs to be near the group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the solutions to issues with predator alarm calling?

A

Call unable to be detected by predator, kin selection, signaller and receiver co-evolution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What are the issues with camouflage?

A

If environment changes, no longer adaptive; may limit movement/geographically constricted; need luck for right mutations; morphology and behaviour co-evolution; predators can develop search image

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are the solutions to issues with camouflage?

A

Genetic variability, phenotypic plasticity, evolve active camouflage, have secondary adaptation (e.g. startling predator)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What are the issues with aposematism?

A

Predators need to learn of danger; colour/poison needs to evolve in tandem

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What are the solutions to issues with aposematism?

A

Aposematic prey living in groups, adopt a colouration already known as dangerous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is aposematism?

A

Bright conspicuous markings of certain distasteful or poisonous animals, which predators recognize and learn to avoid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is Batesian mimicry?

A

A type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the issues with Batesian mimicry?

A

Too many dilutes system; complex; must continue to adapt with those they are mimicking

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What are the solutions to issues with Batesian mimicry?

A

Negative frequency-dependent selection, mimic multiple different species

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are the issues with Mullerian mimicry?

A

Coevolution needed; developmentally costly adaptation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are the solutions to issues with Mullerian mimicry?

A

Trial and error, positive frequency dependent selection, alleles for morphology/poison linked in chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is Mullerian mimicry?

A

Two or more unpalatable species resemble each other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is the life-dinner principle?

A

Predicts prey will evolve faster than predators and escape the arms race, as prey are running for their life and predators are running for their next meal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is the ideal free distribution?

A

When individuals distribute themselves among different habitats in a way that allows them to have the same per capita benefit

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What are the assumptions of ideal free distribution?

A

Animals recognize values of patches, free movement, competitors cannot be excluded

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are the outcomes of ideal free distribution?

A

Number of animals proportional to patch value, resources per capita equal (Nash equilibrium)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is Nash Equilibrium?

A

No individual could improve their own fitness by changing their own strategy (holding all other fitnesses fixed).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What is ideal despotic distribution?

A

A theoretical spatial spread of members of a population in which the competitive dominant ‘aggressive’ individuals take up the best resources or territories, and less competitive individuals take up areas or resources in direct relationship to their dominance status

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What are the assumptions of ideal despotic distribution?

A

Animals recognize values of patches, free movement, competitors can be excluded

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What are the outcomes of ideal despotic distribution?

A

Less competitive animals forced to occupy poorer patches or become floaters, uneven resource distribution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is colonization under ideal free distribution?

A

Richer habitat occupied first, but as competition increases, the poor habitat becomes more attractive; individuals in the poor and rich environment get the same amount of resources

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is colonization under ideal despotic distribution?

A

Richer habitat occupied first; newcomers forced to occupy poorer habitat as competitors increase, and eventually newcomers are excluded altogether; more competitive animals are able to defend resources and exclude all together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
What factors influence natal dispersal?
Costs of dispersal, benefits of dispersal
26
What is natal dispersal?
Leave place of birth in order to find a new place to live
27
What is philopatry?
Remain in place of birth
28
What is home range?
Area or volume in which an individual spends most of its time; home ranges of individuals may overlap
29
What is territory?
Area or volumes defended and used exclusively by an individual, pair, family, or group
30
What is a divisible resource?
The more you have of it, the more offspring can be produced (e.g. food)
31
What is a non-divisible resource?
If you have one, you reproduce. If not, you don't (e.g. nest)
32
When are defended contiguous territories predicted?
Food is the only competed resource
33
When is nest-only defence predicted?
When nests are scarce; if it no longer pays off to defend territories based on food; on graph, peak fitness would be where there is only a nest, and no other extra defended territory
34
What are some benefits to group foraging?
Prey capture, information exchange
35
What is predator dilution?
In larger flocks, probability of attack on any one individual decreases
36
What is eusociality?
Non-reproducing individuals rear offspring
37
What are the benefits to group living?
Predator avoidance; improved defense and access to food; cooperative foraging; access to potential mates; assistance in protecting and rearing young
38
What is the equation for when to join/remain in a group?
rE(R) + E(s) > 0 ## Footnote Relatedness * effect on recipient + effect on self > 0
39
What are some hypotheses to explain the evolution of cooperation and altruism?
Manipulation, mutualism, reciprocity, kin and group selection
40
What is Hamilton's rule?
rB - C > 0 ## Footnote C = cost to the altruistic party; r = genetic relatedness; B = fitness benefit to recipient of altruism
41
What happens when there is a cost to cooperation?
Within groups, cooperators lose to freeloaders; between groups, groups with more cooperators are more productive
42
What happens when there is no cost to cooperation?
Cooperation evolves to maximum levels
43
Why do freeloader frequencies oscillate?
When freeloaders are rare, they take advantage of cooperators without great harm to group productivity, so they increase in frequency in group and the global population. When they get too high in frequency, the group is less productive overall, leading to freeloaders being purged from the global population (negative frequency dependent selection)
44
What is the sexy son/good looks hypothesis?
Females choose the best looking males for the sake of looks alone; fisher's runaway sexual selection
45
What is the good genes hypothesis?
Females use exaggerated traits to assess male genetic quality (association between good genes and trait)
46
Why are males monogamous?
Female distribution in space
47
What is a lek?
Male aggregations where each male defends a tiny territory in which they display to females
48
Why do leks form?
Hotspots, hotshots, female preference
49
What is the hotshot theory?
Subordinate males cluster around a hotshot (an attractive male) to which females are attracted
50
What is the hotspot theory?
Males cluster because females tend to travel along certain routes that intersect (one location better than another)
51
What are some reasons that females mate multiply?
Fertility insurance, genetic benefits, material benefits
52
What is the polygyny threshold model?
An explanation for polygyny based on the premise that females will gain fitness by mating with an already paired male if the resources controlled by that male greatly exceed those under the control of unmated males.
53
When would females accept polygyny?
Male provides no care or resources; only a fraction of males have territories; deceived by male
54
When is male care more common, and why?
External fertilization due to higher association with offspring
55
What group of animals have female-only care most often?
Mammals
56
What group of animals have biparental care most often?
Birds
57
Which of the parents should care for the offspring?
The one with the lower cost in missed opportunities and higher benefit from care, which is often females
58
What is communication?
Process in which senders utilize especially designed signals or displays to modify the behaviour of receivers
59
What is a signal?
Evolved to actively influence the behaviour of a receiver; benefits sender
60
What is a cue?
Incidentally providing information to observers without having evolved for communication; does not necessarily benefit sender
61
What are the different signal modalities?
Visual, acoustic, chemical, mechanical, electric
62
When is a signal expected to be honest?
Signaller and receiver have common interest; display cannot be faked; signals are costly
63
What is culture?
Group-typical behavioural patterns shared by members of a community that depend on socially learned and transmitted information
64
What is cultural transmission?
Transfer of information from individual to individual through social learning or teaching
65
What is the difference between cultural and organic evolution?
Cultural evolution involves horizontal transmission, while organic evolution involves vertical transmission; cultural can occur quickly
66
Why were the low-elevation spiders social in the example in class?
Because they cannot survive the heavy rain and predation otherwise. As the colony gets too big, surface to volume ratio decreases so the insects can no longer sustain them
67
Why were the high elevation spiders sub-social in the example in class?
There are no big insects, and since there is less rain and predation they are able to survive on their own
68
69
What is behaviour?
any activity, whether voluntary or involuntary
70
Behaviours are...
1. predictable 2. occur in response to external stimuli 3. highly diverse
71
What are Tinbergen's four questions?
1. Intrinsic mechanisms: What mechanisms are responsible for the behaviour? 2. ontogeny and development: how do these mechanisms develop within the individual? 3. adaptive value: what is the function or adaptive value of the behaviour? 4. evolutionary history and phylogeny: how did the trait originate and become modified over time?
72
What is proximate explanation?
causal and developmental factors
73
What is ultimate explanation?
factors influencing adaptive advantage and evolution; Functional
74
What is phenotypic plasticity?
ability of a single genotype to alter its phenotype in response to environmental conditions; internal or external
75
What is adaptation?
trait or integrated suite of traits that enable or (enhance the probability of) an organism to survive and/or reproduce
76
What is the key mechanism that leads to evolution?
natural selection
77
What is natural selection?
all organisms have descended with modification from common ancestors
78
What are the four conditions that lead to evolution by natural selection?
1. variability 2. heritability 3. differential survival/reproductive success 4. turnover
79
Is learning an evolved trait?
yes
80
What is heritability?
measures the proportion of the total phenotypic variance among individuals that is due to differences in their genes
81
What does a heritability of 0/1 mean?
0: all differences due to environment; evolution cannot happen 1: all differences due to genes, evolution happens
82
What is heritability measured from?
The slope of the regression
83
How do you calculate heritability?
Heritability = response to selection/selection differential
84
Under what conditions are heritability estimates valid?
they are only valid for the population, time, and place from which they were obtained
85
What is the value of heritability estimates?
they allow us to predict whether a population will respond to natural/artificial selection
86
What are the limitations to the theory of natural selection?
- evolution can also occur due to genetic drift in small populations - random fixations of traits of equivalent fitness - non-adaptive evolution due to loss of favourable alleles or fixation of non-favourable ones
87
What is genetic drift?
Random fluctuations in allele frequencies.
88
What may be responsible for most 'neutral evolution' at the molecular level?
89
What are the 3 problems of evolution by natural selection?
1. evolution happens within the constraints imposed by the evolutionary history of organisms (e.g. panda 'thumbs') 2. natural selection cannot foresee the future; red queen hypothesis 3. not every feature is an adaptation
90
What is meant when we say 'not every feature is an adaptation'?
- certain traits may be a consequence of the laws of physics/chemistry - certain traits may have been fixed or lost due to genetic drift - changes in some traits or structures may automatically lead to changes in others - the phenotype of an organism reflects trade-offs - may be multiple traits of equivalent fitness (e.g. rhino horns)
91
What are the 5 steps in testing adaptive hypothesis?
1. observation 2. question 3. hypothesis 4. experimental design 5. tests of prediction derived from the hypothesis
92
What are the drawbacks of observational studies?
1. cannot claim causation 2. could be other factors playing into survival, not just genes
93
What is advice for good manipulative experiments?
- replicate - randomize - control - blind
94
What is the problem of phylogenetic non-independence?
species cannot be taken as independent data points
95
How to correct for phylogenetic non-independence?
compare groups that share common ancestors; use phylogenetic trees to obtain species pairs that can be treated as phylogenetically independent
96
What is trait comparison?
find the difference in the value of traits
97
Why do we use optimality models?
they allow us to compare the returns obtained from different strategies
98
How do we calculate profitability?
profitability = (energy gained)/(handling time)
99
How do we calculate average rate of energy intake?
(average E gained from items in diet) / (average handling time + average search time)
100
When do animals include less profitable items in diet?
include less profitable items when profitability > average rate of energy intake ## Footnote e.g. main food source becomes scarce
101
Is the inclusion of a novel food item dependent on its abundance?
no, only significant abundance is the main food source
102
When should predators be generalists?
in unproductive environments
103
When should predators be specialists?
in productive environments
104
What are the assumptions/limitations of the diet breadth problem?
- applies only to animals that eat entire prey - the items occur in random order - assumes search and handling time are independent of past history - only takes caloric value of prey into account
105
What is the marginal value theorem?
A conceptual optimal foraging model proposing that an animal should stay in a food patch until the rate of energy gain in that patch has declined to the average rate for the habitat, then depart for another patch.
106
What are diminishing returns?
stage where output increases at a decreasing rate as more units of variable input are added
107
How to predict residence time using graph?
tangent line from travel time to peak of curve
108
What is risk-averse behaviour?
if energy requirements are less than the average expected reward, then go for the less variable option
109
What is risk-prone behaviour?
if energy requirements are more than the average expected reward, then go for the more variable option
110
What is linear regression?
- X and Y continuous - draws a line to best predict values of Y from X - Test statistics: r^2, F, p
111
What is T-test/ANOVA?
- X categorical and Y continuous - used to test if means of two groups are significantly different - use tukey-kramer to see which groups - Test statistics: t-ratio, DF, p; F, p
112
What is Chi-squared test?
- X and Y categorical - tests whether or not the response variable is independent from the categorical groups - Test statistics: x^2, DF, p
113
What is logistic regression?
- X continuous and Y categorical - used to determine how a categorical variable responds to a continuous variable - Test statistics: X^2, DF, p
114
What is an ethogram?
a list of behaviours that an animal exhibits, organized into a table using operational definitions
115
What is a state?
relatively long lasting and tend to end when another begins
116
What is an event?
relatively quick and can happen within states
117
What is latency?
time until first interaction
118
What is proximity?
distance between individuals
119
What is inbreeding depression?
the decline in average fitness that takes place when homozygosity increases and heterozygosity decreases in a population
120
How to calculate inbreeding depression?
I = 1 - wi/wo
121
What is the polygyny threshold model?
t females may benefit from sharing a high-quality territory over exclusive access to a lower-quality one.
122
A study finds inbreeding depression (δ) = 0.4. What does this mean?
Inbred offspring have 40% lower fitness than outbred offspring.

BIOL 310 (1 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions