Biological Flashcards

Question

What are the 4 Lobes?

Answer 1

Temporal Parietal Occipital Prefrontal - Lobes feature when studying the structure of the brain

Answer 2

Taking messages between the 2 hemispheres of the brain

Answer 3

- Lots of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine connections are found in the prefrontal cortex. These neurotransmitters link to emotions; suggesting the prefrontal cortex has a role in emotions - Becharer + van der Linden (2005) agreed from their findings that the prefrontal lobe regulates behaviour + defers rewards, being about planning; lesion (damage) might be wanting more immediate gratification, making someone impatient, so linking to aggression. The prefrontal lobe inhibits messages from the amygdala, which links to it having a planning role + damage there might lead to more negative emotions - Raine et al found that people who had showed emotional impulsive violence differed in their prefrontal cortex compared with controls

Answer 4

- Limbic System: Hippocampus, Amygdala, Hypothalamus - Has a role in Self Preservation; including response to emotions and the 'Fight-or-Flight' response, which arouses us when we're in danger - In animals, if the amygdala is stimulated (using an electric current), there is an aggressive response. If the amygdala is removed, the animal is passive

Answer 5

- Raine et al. found the prefrontal cortex is involved in aggression - Aggression is due to a lack of control from the prefrontal cortex: If the prefrontal cortex is damaged, or functions poorly / abnormally, then people can become very impulsive, impatient and aggressive - Depression links to the orbifrontal, vetromedial and lateral prefrontal cortex.

Answer 6

The prefrontal cortex is the outer layer of the brain, is in the prefrontal lobe, is found in both hemispheres and has a role in emotions

Answer 7

- Human case studies such as Phineas Gage are often consistent with the findings of animal studies; suggesting findings from lesion studies also apply to humans. - Blair et al (2001) found that patients with psychopathic personalities have similar neurocognitive function to patients with a damaged amygdala; supporting the idea that this structure is linked to aggression - Raine et al used PET scans and found that a group of murderers showed lower activity in the prefrontal cortex, and differences in the functioning of the limbic system (compared with controls); supporting the idea that these regions are involved in aggression. - Psychology as a Science: Animal Research can be carried out in a more scientific way that with Human Research, due to ethics. High control is possible when manipulating/controlling variables- This leads to better internal validity, and a stronger cause + effect relationship

Answer 8

- Andy + Velamin (1978) stimulated the hypothalamus + basal ganglia (both in the limbic system) of cats; which lead to them having aggressive seizures. - They also found that blocking catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine) increased aggression. This shows how neurotransmitters and brain structure link. - Downer (1961) removed 1 amygdala from monkeys (ablation). Visual signals go to the amygdala- Visual signals that reaches the amygdala led to normal functioning, but when they went to the removed amygdala, this lead to more calm behaviour. - Hermans et al (1994) showed that electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus leads to aggression.

Answer 9

- Andy + Velamin (1978) stimulated the hypothalamus + basal ganglia (both in the limbic system) of cats; which lead to them having aggressive seizures. - They also found that blocking catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine) increased aggression. This shows how neurotransmitters and brain structure link. - Downer (1961) removed 1 amygdala from monkeys (ablation). Visual signals go to the amygdala- Visual signals that reaches the amygdala led to normal functioning, but when they went to the removed amygdala, this lead to more calm behaviour. - Hermans et al (1994) showed that electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus leads to aggression.

Answer 10

He had an accident in 1848, where a 3.1 pole went through his head from igniting compact explosive powder. Scientists eventually established that up to 4 per cent of the cerebral cortex and about 11 per cent of the total white matter in the frontal lobe were destroyed. (However, we mainly say he damaged his prefrontal lobe) The wound physically healed in 10 weeks and he managed to live for another 11 years before he died. In 1868 Harlow wrote a report on the ‘mental manifestations’ of Gage’s injuries. He described Gage as “fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity…capricious and vacillating” and being “radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was ‘no longer Gage’.”

Answer 11

- The findings of animal research might not be generalisable to humans; as the effects on behaviour might be different in humans and animals - Case studies such as Phineas Gage are not representative of society; and so findings may not generalise to everyone - Brain scans used to find brain issues lack ecological validity

Answer 12

The prefrontal cortex is involved with emotions and has high levels of synapses with dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine) It regulates behaviour and governs social interaction. It allows people to plan their actions and delay gratification and rewards

Answer 13

The whole brainers believed that the brain was linked. This means that they thought the all parts of the brain were in control of all emotions, instead of there being certain parts that are appointed to emotions. The localisers believed that certain parts of the brain controlled certain emotions.

Answer 14

The Vital Force is an energy that enables all living things to self-heal or to preserve life by adapting to environmental changes. In the case of the human body, the Vital Force directs the different body systems to function as a harmonious whole, in much the same way a conductor directs the separate parts of an orchestra to produce a single, pleasing piece of music.

Answer 15

The hidden part of our psyche (mind). It contains thoughts, feelings and memories we are not aware of and we find hard to access/ can't access. (e.g. someone may have repressed being lost as a small child, and not be aware of it) There may be material that can never be recalled to the consciousness, in particular instincts + deeply buried memories.

Answer 16

1. The Libido/Eros: the life instinct that manifests itself as sexuality 2. The Thanatos: the death instinct which manifests itself as aggression and destructiveness. These thoughts are inaccessible to us, to protect us from information that is unacceptable.

Answer 17

Id, Ego and Superego

Answer 18

The most primitive part of the personality that acts on instinctive drives + impulses with no thoughts of consequences. It is driven by the Eros and Thanatos: Due to it being driven by the eros/libido (Pleasure Principle), it demands immediate gratification of its urges (food, sex, etc) Humans are born with an id (which explains why we crave food + comfort from an early age)

Answer 19

Driven by the Reality Principle (rules in terms of what is socially acceptable), and tries to satisfy the id within realistic appropriate boundaries Develops at 2 years old (at this point, the child doesn't know right from wrong, but starts to understand when certain behaviours are appropriate)

Answer 20

Operates on the Morality Principle (understanding what is right and wrong) Develops at 3-6 years old (the child begins to feel guilt for wrongdoings, and pride for correct behaviour)

Answer 21

Catharsis takes place when negative energy/emotions are released in the mind through relatively harmless activities. It satisfies the thanatos and unconscious. (e.g. watching a horror film, or playing a violent video game releases violent tendencies without the individual actually harming someone in real life)

Answer 22

Bushman (2002) Student participants were told that another student had criticised an essay they had written, in order to annoy them. They were then split into 3 groups; one sat quietly for a few minutes, one hit a punching bag, one hit a punching bag and were instructed to think about the student. The third condition lead to angrier participants than the other groups.

Answer 23

The psychodynamic approach typically investigated human behaviour through clinical case studies; in-depth investigations of an individual who presented an abnormal condition that was systematically studied over a long period of time.

Answer 24

The gradual development of different kinds of living organisms from earlier forms during the history of Earth. This means that due to common ancestors, all species share some genes with each other.

Answer 25

By Natural Selection - The process whereby organisms that are better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring - Organisms better adapted to the environment are healthier, live longer and reproduce more frequently; passing on the genes that made them reproductively fit onto their offspring (eg, giraffes with longer necks pass on their genes to the offspring, as they are able to reach more trees and eat more)

Answer 26

- A unit of hereditary information that is transferred from a parent to offspring, and is believed to determine a particular characteristic of the offspring.

Answer 27

- A type of natural selection that occurs through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex. - For example the evolutionary psychology stereotype would be that our female ancestors tended to choose tall muscular males who could protect them and their children, leading to those genes being passed on to the next generation

Answer 28

The changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant (different) form which may be passed on to the subsequent generations

Answer 29

Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness

Answer 30

- The environment in which a particular adaptation is said to have evolved - The conditions that prevailed in the environment at the time a species was adapted in response to ( e.g. The EEA for humans was when humans lived in Hunter-gatherer groups. In the EEA, successful humans were those best suited to the environment in which they lived)

Answer 31

- Evolutionary psychologists look at fossil records to understand the behaviour that would be adaptive. They then compare that to current behaviour in order to argue that behaviour is genetically determined through brain structure and chemistry - Examples of behaviour that can explained within an evolutionary perspective include: parental investment, mate choice and understanding emotions. - Unlike our genetic make up, our environment has undergone rapid change; leading to a potential mismatch where we stuck with 'hardwired' behaviour that would have served us well thousands of years ago but clashes with the way we live now

Answer 32

- The total energy and resources that parents must expand to produce a particular offspring - The expenditure increases the survival of the offspring, but also decreases the ability for the parent to invest in other offspring - The act of having sex can result in much higher parental investment for women, in comparison to males - For males the minimum parental investment risk by copulation is the cost of sperm; for females the cost is nine months of pregnancy and the risks inherent in childbirth (and potentially more time and energy spent bringing up the children)

Answer 33

Some argue that these differences in parental investment between males and females lead women to be more selective with their mates than males

Answer 34

- In the EEA, bigger and stronger males are the most capable of protecting their mates and offspring. - Also, psychologically aggressive male would be more capable of doing this as they would be more successful at hunting, and defending food resources from other males - These males also had an advantage in terms of mate choice: Females would prefer a male that could protect her, her offspring, and their food resources due to his aggressive nature. - Therefore psychologically aggressive males would be more successful in reproducing, as they would be chosen by females as mates due to sexual selection.

Answer 35

- Physical aggression in females with that as an evolutionary disadvantage for their offspring: Females would have spent a lot of the time looking after vulnerable children; and if they engaged and fighting and hurting, this may well have put the lives of the children at risk. - Therefore, aggressive females would be more likely to have offspring that did not survive to adulthood; and so their genes would not have continued, due to natural selection - Evolutionary psychologists such Buss (1999) suggested females competed for the best mates through verbal and emotional aggression, by criticising other females and making them seem less attracted to males.

Answer 36

- Male brains have a small difference in structure in comparison to females, as the result of exposure to testosterone before and after birth. Some argue these differences are linked to male abilities e.g. spatial awareness (hunting/sport), and aggression; supporting the idea that aggressive males were more likely to pass on their genes, due to natural selection in the EEA. - Mazur (1983) showed fighting between males increases at puberty, when testosterone levels in males increased dramatically; supporting the idea that male hormones (testosterone) are linked with aggression.

Answer 37

- There is very limited evidence that evolution explains behaviour, and so we cannot experimentally/scientifically test the idea that aggressive males were more likely to pass on their genes due to natural selection in the EEA. - Aggressive people are more likely to be injured or die as a result of their behaviour, which challenges the idea that aggressive males can pass on their genes

Answer 38

- Reductionism: Some argue it reduces the complex behaviour of aggression to being caused by particular genes that were favoured in the EEA; rather than explaining it more holistically, as caused by the interaction between the range of interconnecting factors (parts of the brain, social influences, cognitive processes, etc) - Deterministic: some argue that explaining aggression through genes suggests we have little free will; and are programmed to behave aggressively by evolution. This can therefore be used as an excuse to explain aggressively and unacceptability: for example some have used this theory to explain rape as an evolutionary strategy that was successful in the EEA so some men might be genetically predisposed to act in this way.

Answer 39

The so-called warrior gene comprises particular variations in the X chromosome gene that produces monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme that affects the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Studies have linked the “Warrior Gene” to increased risk-taking and to retaliatory behavior.

Answer 40

They are Carried in the Blood, and Operate All Around the Body They take longer to work than neurotransmitters, and tend to be used to affect longer-term changes

Answer 41

Chemical Messages that Transmit Information around the Body

Answer 42

They're Produced + Excreted by Glands; and the System of Glands is called the Endocrine System.

Answer 43

Released by the Posterior Pituitary Gland Shown to Increase Trust between People

Answer 44

Hormones affect behaviour, and cause Physical Changes in the body

Answer 45

An Androgen; which is a chemical that develops/ maintains male characteristics We all have testosterone in our bodies, but it is much more present in Males than females.

Answer 46

Antenatal exposure to testosterone has an organising effect on the developing brain, leading to increased spatial ability and (arguably) competitive aggression. Following birth, testosterone sensitises certain neural circuits- e.g. stimulates cell growth in areas of the hypothalamus and amygdala, this affects aggression as an adult

Answer 47

Research on rodents support this: 1. Castration effectively stops testosterone production,and leads to little/no aggressive behaviour. However, if testosterone is injected afterwards, they'll show aggression 2. Testosterone injection in newborns will have a limited effect on their aggression. However, in those aged 10 days old, the replacement testosterone brings the level of aggression back up to normal for uncastrated rodents. 3. Injecting neonatal female rodents with testosterone made them act more aggressively when given testosterone as adults, compared to control females

Answer 48

Adrenaline is produced in the medulla in the adrenal glands, as well as some of the central nervous system's neurons. Within a couple of minutes during a stressful situation, adrenaline is quickly released into the blood, sending impulses to organs to create a specific response.

Answer 49

Adrenaline triggers the body's fight-or-flight response The body's ability to feel pain also decreases as a result of adrenaline Adrenaline causes a noticeable increase in strength and performance, as well as heightened awareness, in stressful times.

Answer 50

D'Andrade: Boys have higher exposure to testosterone both pre and post-natally, and boys are (on average) more aggressive than girls Mazur: Testosterone levels increase during the early teens and there is a strong positive correlation between aggressive behaviour and inter-male fighting (Correlation does not indicate causality, and other variables like socialisation may also be a cause) Hawke: There have been cases of convicted sex offenders, where their castration led to a removal of aggression and loss of sex drive (These studies didn't have a control group, and fully objective measures of aggression. Current ethical guidelines mean they can't replicate such studies)

Answer 51

Mazur + Booth: Individual testosterone levels varied across someone's lifespan due to environmental status (e.g. being married decreases testosterone, divorce increases it) They also found support for the Basal Model: testosterone causes a change in a person's aggressive dominance, as it found that men with higher levels of testosterone were more likely to get arrested + use weapons in fights.

Answer 52

Direction of Causality is an issue, and it may be that testosterone occurs as a result of aggressive/dominant behaviour. Reciprocal Model of Testosterone: Testosterone is an effect of dominance, and not the cause of it Animal studies used to support hormones can't really generalise to humans Different findings have been found in different species- the cingulate gyrus associates with fear-induced aggression in monkeys, but leads to irritability in dogs + cats Human research surrounding sex offenders can't generalise to all humans

Answer 53

Positron Emission Tomography

Answer 54

Mazur + Booth: Individual testosterone levels varied across someone's lifespan due to environmental status (e.g. being married decreases testosterone, divorce increases it)

Answer 55

- Patients are injected with 'flourodeoxyglucose' (FDG). - FDG attaches to glucose, which the brain uses up as a form of energy. - As the brain is working, the glucose will be used up - The radioactive atoms start to break down emitting positrons - This leads to gamma rays being produced, which the scanner picks up.

Answer 56

- High gamma ray concentration = High brain activity = Warmer colours like red showing up on the image - Low gamma ray concentration = Low brain activity = Cooler colours like blue showing up on the image

Answer 57

- Useful for detecting areas of the brain that aren't functioning normally; which could indicate damage or tumours - Indicates parts of the brain showing abnormal levels of brain activity; which helps researchers see what problems exist and also predict any future issues - Objective, as coloured images of the gamma rays aren't affected by opinion. Therefore, conclusions gathered are valid & accurate

Answer 58

- More Invasive: the patient is injected with a radioactive substance - Although it is a low risk, it is advised to not take too many PET scans (unless it's absolutely necessary), as the long term effects of them are unclear - Lacks ecological validity (unnatural environment)

Answer 59

In the 1990s | It's relatively new

Answer 60

The fMRI scan is a functional scan; meaning it is an 'ongoing' scan rather than an image (like with the MRI Scan)

Answer 61

- Brain activity is associated with blood flow in the brain - You place your head inside a very large & powerful electromagnet - Blood flow increases in the active areas to keep up with the demand for oxygen - Oxygenated haemoglobin repels a magnetic field (diamagnetic); and when deoxygenated, it follows the direction of the magnetic field (paramagnetic) - It's these things the scanner will detect to create an image

Answer 62

- They are non-invasive as they don't include a radioactive substance - They are objective as magnetic fields in the brain can only be interpreted in one way, and aren't affected by opinion.

Answer 63

- Some people are unable to have fMRI scans: - e.g. Anyone with a cardiac pacemaker or metal implants - Not be suitable for anyone who is claustrophobic, or don't like confined spaces or loud noises; as they will become stressed - fMRI Scans lack ecological validity, as the brain activity is scanned & measured while the participant carries out activities in an artificial environment. Therefore, any conclusions gathered do not reflect real life brain activity & behaviour

Answer 64

Computerised Axial Tomography

Answer 65

- CAT Scans take images of any part of the body - They involve passing X-Ray's through the head, where multiple beams are passed around the head from different angles to gather more information (as opposed to a standard X-ray that focuses on one specific area) - The information from the multiple X-Ray beams is interpreted by a computer, and a detailed image of the brain structure can be seen

Answer 66

- CAT scans are good for scanning something as complex as the brain as it can process more information - Useful for detecting areas of brain damage or rumours - Gives accurate details of brain structure which helps guide clinicians in decision making regarding treatment or surgery - Helps surgeons to better plan a procedure as they can accurately see the structure of the brain without physically entering the skull: This makes the procedure faster & more efficient, and reduces risks - Objective as X-Ray's can't be affected by opinion

Answer 67

- It doesn't give any information about how the brain is functioning. - The use of X-Ray's in CAT Scans can pose a risk to patients, as they involve exposure to radiation: - It is advised that they should only be used when the benefits (in relation to diagnosis) outweigh the potential risks - Pregnant women are advised not to take it, as there's evidence that exposure to X-Rays can cause damage to the unborn baby - CAT Scans lack ecological validity as the scan occurs in an artificial environment. Therefore, any conclusions gathered do not reflect real life behaviour + brain activity

Answer 68

In recent years, psychologists have been using brain-scanning methods to make links between brain scans + activity, and a variety of human behaviours. An element of human behaviour of considerable interest has been aggression, and researchers have been using a range of scanning techniques to explain aggressive behaviour (e.g. Raine et al)

Answer 69

- To see if participants pleading 'Not Guilty By Insanity' (NGRI) would show brain dysfunctions in areas of the brain associated with violence - Namely, these were the prefrontal cortex, angular gyras, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus + corpus callosum

Answer 70

2 groups of 41 participants 39 males, 2 females

Answer 71

41 criminals convicted of murder or manslaughter were tested to support evidence of the NGRI claim. (Including, but not limited to) - 6 had schizophrenia - 23 suffered organic brain damage/ brain activity - 3 were substance abusers - 2 had epilepsy All participants remained medication free 2 weeks prior to the PET Scans

Answer 72

- They were matched with the experimental group based on age + gender - They were screened for general health (which involved a physical examination + access to their medical history) - Participants were excluded if they had a history of seizures, trauma or head misuse - Consent was gained from all participants before the PET Scan was administered

Answer 73

- Participants were given a continuous performance task (CPT), consisting of a sequence of blurred numbers to focus on. - Participants started the CPT as a practice trial for 10 minutes - Participants were injected with the FDG - After a further 32 minutes, the PET scan was then completed - This measured the metabolic rate in different areas of the brain in order to look at brain activities

Answer 74

Compared to the control group, murderers showed: - Lower activity in the prefrontal cortex (both lateral + medial areas) - Lower activity in partial areas; especially the left angular gyras + bilateral superior parietal regions - Higher activity in the occipital regions - Identical activity in the temporal lobe In subcortial areas, murderers also showed: - Lower activity in the corpus callosum - Assymetrical activity in the amygdala (lower in the left, higher in the right) - Higher level activity in the right of the thalamus

Answer 75

- These brain differences have been associated with many behavioural changes that could be related to violent behaviour (e. g. dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex has been linked to impulsivity, lack of self-control and an inability to learn from the consequence of behaviour) - The hippocampus, amygdala + thalamus have all been related to learning, and it has been suggested that abnormal activity her could result in criminals being unable to modify their own behaviour by learning from the consequences of their activity

Answer 76

Generalisability: The sample was the largest sample of violent offenders to be studied in this way (41 criminals convicted of murder, and 41 controls) Reliability: The procedure involved PET scans-standardised Internal Validity: They kept ppts free if drugs for 2 weeks before the scans - controlling extraneous variables Matched Pair Design-similar head injuries, and left/right handedness- ppt variables didn't affect results Practical Application: The finding that violent murderers have abnormal brain functioning may apply in the court system, whereby brain scans might serve to be helpful as part off a criminal investigation

Answer 77

Generalisability: The sample was 41 criminals pleading NGRI- the finding only apply to murders, those pleading NGRI and males (as there were only 2 females) Ecological Validity: PET scans and the continuous performance task do not represent normal behaviour

Answer 78

Protection From Harm: Asking participants to not take their medication for 2 weeks may have led to a temporary increase in the symptoms they get, causing more harm Informed Consent: It is difficult to those diagnosed with mental health disorders to fully give informed consent

Answer 79

- Previous studies had identified circuits involved in reward, motivation, inhibitory control and working memory; all of which are implicated in addiction associated with other regions of the brain - However very little research has been done on the PCC.

Answer 80

- To investigate the relationship between chronic drug use, and changes in specific brain areas: especially the cingulate cortex. - The research is aimed to look specifically at the PCC and it's functional role in relation to heroin addiction. - They were particularly interested in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), because of its connectivity to other regions of the brain.

Answer 81

- 14 heroin addicted males with an average age of 35 years - All were recruited from a drug rehabilitation centre in China - They have been using heroin for an average of 89 months - At the time of the study they were tested for opiate use and found to be clean of all drugs (including heroin), except for nicotine - All right handed and not had a history of psychiatric disorders

Answer 82

- All participants had a session in the fMRI scanner - Their resting state was tested where they had to focus their attention on a target for five minutes and did nothing else - This was immediately followed by the cue induced condition, where after a 10 second gap participants were exposed to 24 pictures of drug related activity, and 24 neutral pictures

Answer 83

- The heroin addict's reported craving heroin, following the cue inducing pictures. - There was significantly different activation in specific areas of the PCC, and between the PCC and other regions associated with the brains reward system in the heroin group compare to the control group - In the resting state, the relationship between different parts of the brain showed a stronger connectivity between the PCC & bilateral insula, and between the PCC & bilateral dorsal stratum in chronic heroin users than in the control group. - The insula is believed to be responsible for associating internal emotional in all states with decision-making behaviours, so could be more readily activated as a result of seeing the heroin picture cues as the behaviour pattern of craving and seeking drugs would've been established

Answer 84

- Activity in the PCC were significantly increased when heroin users were exposed to drug related cues. - Different area is linked to physio orientation and verbal processing, and are sensitive to unpredictable rewards.

Answer 85

- The procedure involved fMRI arrived and which is the sun standardised method therefore the findings were reliable. - The researcher did control extraneous variables, such as they made sure the ex addicts were detoxified by conducting a urine analysis. This made sure they did not have morphine in their body during the investigation. Therefore the findings is valid - The researcher used a matched pair design where males varied from the experimental group only in the substance misuse history. Therefore there is a strong relationship between chronic heroin use in changes in specific brain areas. - All participants gave fully informed consent and the procedure was approved by two ethical committees - The findings have helped build a picture of the effect of the long-term misuse and provide a marker of brain damage, which helps to measure the severity of the effect of drug addiction. This has also helped create a model of the brain structures associated with addiction

Answer 86

- The sample is limited to males and females were excluded in this research, which means the study is not representative of women at all. Therefore the findings are not generalisable to females in society. - The study was carried out in China and only consider participants from one culture and so the research is not representative of people from different culture (it lacks cross-cultural advantage). Therefore the finding is not generalisable to all of society. - The protection of participants was broken, because exposing addicts to drug use could have implications for relapse for the individuals concerned, particularly in the detoxification phrase that the researchers have placed them in

Answer 87

- Monozygotic and Dizygotic - Monozygotic twins are identical twins: They share 100% of the same genetic material, and are always the same sex. - Dizygotic twins are fraternal twins: They share 50% of genetic material (like any two siblings), and can be the same sex or different sexes.

Answer 88

Provide psychologists with a unique design to test the influence of nature and/or nurture on human behaviour.

Answer 89

- Psychologists are able to compare behaviour between a group of identical/MZ twins and a group of fraternal/DZ twins, to see which group share the most similarity between each set of twins. - MZ twins are compare to DZ twins. All twins have been brought up together, and experienced a similar environment. Psychologist then compare the concordance rates between these twins. - If MZ twins are more similar to DZ twins this suggests behaviour is due to nature more than nurture. - If MZ twins are equally similar to DZ twins, this suggests behaviour is due to nurture more than nature.

Answer 90

- The extent to which behaviour is the same between twins. - The similarity between pairs of twins is calculated at represented as either: 1. Concordance Rates (0= no similarity 1= exactly the same) 2. Percentages (0%= no similarity 100%= exactly the same)

Answer 91

- Half of the MZ twins were brought up together, and half were separated at birth and brought up in different environments. - Psychologists and compare concordance rates between both types of MZ twins for characteristics such as IQ and intelligence - If the MZ twins who were brought up together have a higher concordance rate, this suggests behaviour is due more to nurture than nature - If both types of MZ twins have similar concordance rates, this suggests behaviour is due more to nature than nurture.

Answer 92

Gottesman and Shields (1996) Schizophrenia in Twins

Answer 93

1) It is virtually impossible to separate nature completely from nurture 2) Almost all twins will be raised together. Therefore it is problematic to assume that, just because MZ twins shows a higher concordance than DZ twins for a behaviour, it must be genetic. 3) It is not easy to recruit a large + diverse group of MZ and DZ twins, making the generalsability of studies problematic

Answer 94

To investigate the influence of genetics and environment on schizophrenia, by comparing MZ and DZ twins.

Answer 95

- The sample of 57 same sex twins where one was diagnosed with schizophrenia were chosen - Permission was given to look at their hospital records. - Each twin was assessed to see if they were MZ or DZ twins; based on fingerprints, blood samples and appearance. - 24 pairs of MZ twins, and is 33 pairs of DZ twins were identified. - Hospital diagnosis records were used to assess rates of schizophrenia, and other psychiatric abnormalities in the twins. - Twins were also assessed; according to self-report questionnaires, interviews with twins/parents, personality tests and thinking tests.

Answer 96

- Concordance rates for schizophrenia were higher in MZ twins (42%) than in DZ twins (9%), showing schizophrenia is influenced by genes. - However, since the concordance rate for MZ twins was not 100%, this suggests there might be some environmental factors that cause schizophrenia. - For example, in cases where only one MZ twin was schizophrenic, the twin with the disorder had often experienced a trauma; such as brain damage as a prisoner of war, or an abusive husband. - Concordance rates between females were higher than for males for all types of psychological abnormality, suggesting genes linked to schizophrenia have more of an effect in females.

Answer 97

- Genes appear to play an important role in schizophrenia, because the percentage of schizophrenic probands (The first affected family member who seeks medical attention for a genetic disorder) is higher for MZ's than DZ's. - Since some MZ's did not share a diagnosis, genes alone cannot be a sufficient explanation for the cause of schizophrenia. - Other environmental factors must also be important, such as physical and psychological sources of stress.

Answer 98

- Gottesman used 57 pairs of twins, which is representative of all twins in society - Gottesman used standardised tests such as personality and thinking tests, which was the same procedure for all participants, making findings reliable. Therefore the study can be replicated in a similar way to give similar results and findings. - Gottesman's twin study is ecologically valid, as the twins were brought up in their natural environment. Therefore, findings about genes causing schizophrenia reflect natural behaviour. - Gottesman's study has application for doctors who could be as a family history of schizophrenia to see whether genes or upbringing causes schizophrenia, and see whether any future offspring could have schizophrenia.

Answer 99

- As Gottesman only used twins, it is unsure that the findings of genes and upbringing having an affect on schizophrenia is generalisable to all of society.

Answer 100

Adoptees share no genetic material with their adopted families, but they have shared an environment throughout their upbringing. However, adoptees will share 50% of their genes with each biological parent, but not have lived with them for the majority of their life.

Answer 101

Groups of adoptees are studied and their behaviour is then correlated with their adopted families as well as their natural families. If the behaviour of the adoptees shared more similarity with the adopted family we might assume that the behaviour in question was more likely to be the rest of the shared environment. But if the behaviour of the adoptees correlated more strongly with the biological family, and is not associated with the behaviour of the adoptive family, then it could be concluded that the behaviour being studied is caused by a biological component.

Answer 102

1) It is virtually impossible to separate nature completely from nurture 2) It is rare for a child to be adopted by a family immediately from birth, so they may have lived with their biological family or foster care, which are confounding variables which affect the validity of findings. 3) Children who are being adopted tend to be placed with families that closely reflect the family background they came from. It may be unreliable to assume that any similarities between the adoptee + their biological family is the sole result of nature; because the similarity could well be due to similar life events they have experienced. 4) It is not easy to recruit a large + diverse group of MZ and DZ twins, making the generalsability of studies problematic

Answer 103

Cadoret and Stewart (1991): An adoption study of attention deficit/hyperactivity/aggression and their relationship to adult antisocial personality

Answer 104

•To investigate the relationships among genetic background, environmental factors, and clinical outcome with various psychiatric / behavioural problems (attention deficit/hyperactivity, aggressivity, and adult antisocial personality (ASP)) amongst adoptees.

Answer 105

• A sample of 283 male adoptees were chosen to take part in a longitudinal study, the age of the participants was between 18-40. • The adoptees were divided into 2 groups based on whether or not biological parents showed evidence (from adoption agency records) of psychiatric problems or behavioural disturbance. Group 1 = Biological parent with psychiatric or behavioural problems Group 2 = Biological parent with no psychiatric or behavioural problems * Researchers carried out an evaluation of biological parents from agency records, and direct evaluation of adoptees and adoptive parents was also carried out. * Relationships between genes and clinical outcome were examined. Relationships between environmental factors and clinical outcomes were also examined.

Answer 106

* Adopted boys were at an increased risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity and aggression as children if they had a biological parent who had been convicted of a crime in adulthood. * Boys were more likely to be aggressive or have a diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity if there were psychiatric problems in members of the adoptive family. * Environmental factors of socioeconomic status (SES), and psychiatric problems in adoptive family members correlated significantly with various clinical outcomes of aggressivity, attention deficit/hyperactivity, and ASP.

Answer 107

• Behaviour as complex as aggression can have a variety of causes and is not significantly attributable to nature or nurture. In other words, this study demonstrated the importance of genetic (biological parent pathology) and environmental (pathology of adoptive family) factors in the development of adult antisocial personality disorder.

Answer 108

G: 283 ppts were used, which is a very large sample size. I.V: A control group was used, where one group had parents with no psychiatric or behavioural problems Practical Application

Answer 109

G: Only males were used, which isn't generalisable to the wider population as it also consists of women

Answer 110

• A sample of 283 male adoptees were chosen to take part in a longitudinal study, the age of the participants was between 18-40. • The adoptees were divided into 2 groups based on whether or not biological parents showed evidence (from adoption agency records) of psychiatric problems or behavioural disturbance. Group 1 = Biological parent with psychiatric or behavioural problems Group 2 = Biological parent with no psychiatric or behavioural problems

Answer 111

Correlations show us whether or not there is a relationship between two variables, or in other words, whether the 2 variables have an effect on each other. Correlations do not tell you if one variable caused another.

Answer 112

Co-variables can be measured directly by the researcher, or they are gathered from secondary data from other sources.

Answer 113

Correlations are plotted on a scatterplot or scattergraph. For each data point, 2 scores are plotted, for example number of genes a person shares, and a behavioural characteristic such as aggression. A place is marked on the graph for each participant, showing both scores.

Answer 114

A line of best fit is drawn across all of the scores of each participant. Three types of correlation may be found: 1. Positive correlation: there is a positive relationship between the 2 variables, therefore as one variable increases, so does the other variable. 2. Negative correlation: there is a negative relationship between the 2 variables, therefore as one variable increases, the other variable decreases 3. No correlation: there is no relationship between the two variables.

Answer 115

Studies rarely produce perfect correlations. In order to tell how strong the relationship is between two variables, the correlation coefficient is calculated. This is a number that falls between -1 and 1. - 1:Perfect negative correlation 0: No correlation 1: Perfect positive correlation The closer to (+/-) 1 it is, the stronger the correlation

Answer 116

The correlation is perfect if the line of best fit covers every participant’s score.

Answer 117

It uses quantitative data, which is objective. They involve a reliable procedure, of gathering numerative data and plotting it on a graph Researchers can use information gathered by other psychologists for their study, making them practical and cost effective in comparison to primary data

Answer 118

If data relies upon self report, for example asking participants to self rate their aggression levels, then the correlation may be invalid due to subjectivity Any secondary data used for the correlations may be cherry picked

Answer 119

Spearman's Rho

Answer 120

A correlational study into aggression

Answer 121

The biological approach suggests that hormones link to levels of aggression, more levels of testosterone positively correlates to higher levels of aggression. Additionally, antenatal exposure to testosterone can have an effect on levels of testosterone Research that supports this is the animal studies, where the rodents are castrated and production of testosterone is prevented show significance when comparing to non-castrated control rats where they showed aggressive behaviour involving situations with male competition and threats, therefore there will be a relationship between aggressive and testosterone

Answer 122

To investigate whether there is a positive correlation between self-reported aggression and testosterone exposure in the uterus shown through 2D:4D finger ratio

Answer 123

Co-Variable 1: Aggression Operationalised through self-reported questionnaires Co-Variable 2: Testosterone Operationalised through 2D:4D ratio

Answer 124

There will be no difference between the self-reported aggression and testosterone exposure in the uterus showing through 2D:4D finger ratio as it will be due to chance

Answer 125

There will be a correlation between the self-reported aggression and testosterone exposure in the uterus shown through 2D:4D finger ratio

Answer 126

Random Sampling This will be used because it's not time-consuming We will use 20 participants. These will be half male and half female

Answer 127

1. Aggression: Self-Reported Questionnaire We chose this questionnaire because it's less time-consuming, and allows to explore levels of aggression as you get to choose the questions 2. Testosterone: We will measure the 2D:4D ratio using a ruler and recording our results on a table/sheet.

Answer 128

Protection from Harm: We will not include any sensitive topics or questions, but if they experienced any psychological harm a psychologist (in our case, miss begum) was offered to provide assistance and support Competence: We are qualified as we have covered aggression and levels of testosterone Withdrawal: We will mention through the brief that if they would like to withdraw at any time, they can Informed Consent: We will ask for their consent through the brief Deception: Do you to demand characteristics, we find it more beneficial to not reveal the aim as the cost benefit analysis model comes into context Debriefing: We gave a brief asking for consent and reminding them to withdraw, and informing them we are assessing their general behaviour. In the debrief, we told them the aim of the study and asked if they're happy for us to use the data as part of the experiment

Answer 129

We selected our 20 participants using the random sampling technique, by using excel and writing random names in year 12 and 13 and asked them to answer the questionnaire and measure the finger digits We measured aggression by giving out self-reported questionnaires We measured testosterone by measuring 2D:4D ratio

Answer 130

We drew a scatter graph: Our scattergraph suggests that there is no relationship between aggression and testosterone, because there was no trend when I plotted my results Sense checking our data suggested no correlation, because no pattern or trend was found.

Answer 131

Spearman's Rho The calculated/observed value of the Spearman's rank test was -0.32. This was less than the critical value of 0.378, with N = 20. Therefore the result is not significant, and the null hypothesis can be supported, which states that there will be no correlation between aggression and testosterone levels, and any differences will be due to chance

Answer 132

There is no relationship between self-reported aggressive and testosterone levels in finger digit ratio. This may be due to people not answering the questionnaire with a true reflection of themselves, as they are rating themselves too high or low. The research is inconsistent with previous research by Ellis + Austin who found that testosterone levels do correlate with aggression, who looked at the last four days and first 4 days of a woman's menstrual cycle release more testosterone.

Answer 133

G: Our sample size was 20 participants which were both male and female, which is a big enough sample R: The procedure involved giving the questionnaire and measuring their finger digit ratio, which is a standardised procedure I.V: We did control some extraneous variable is through the idea of not getting psychology students to carry out the questionnaire, to avoid demand characteristics. This led to a stronger cause-and-effect relationship E.V: Answering questions in a natural comfortable environment can allow to believe the participants reflected real opinions and behaviour

Answer 134

G: We mainly used sixth form students, which is not representative of all society R: We used self-reported data, which is subjective E.V: The procedure of measuring finger digit ratios and answering questions in a school environment does not necessarily reflect natural behaviour I.V: Participants may not be entirely sure about their aggression levels, answering the questionnaire inaccurately

Answer 135

Straighten your fingers and look at the palm of your hand. Select the crease closest to the palm and choose a point on the crease midway across the base of the finger Mark it with a pen Measure for the mark to the tip of the finger High Testosterone = a low ratio (<1) Low Testosterone = a high ratio (>1)

Answer 136

We used the Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire Answers were ranked on a Likert scale: From Extremely uncharacteristic to Extremely characteristic, with a Neutral option involved Questions include: I have become so mad that I have broken things I am an even-tempered person I have trouble controlling my temper

Answer 137

What are the implications for society if aggression is found to be caused by nature or nurture?

Answer 138

Feelings of angers resulting in hostile or violent behaviour; readiness to attack or confront

Answer 139

If aggression is caused by nature, then this implies some individuals might have great difficulty in overcoming their aggressive tendencies. This raises the questions of whether people should be held responsible or blamed for violent crimes they have committed.

Answer 140

If aggression is caused by nurture, then this implies that families and society can have a large impact on individuals' behaviour in terms of crime and aggression. Perhaps there need to be a higher level of government intervention in reducing negative influences in society (e.g. more media control, applying for a license to be a parent?!)

Answer 141

If violent behaviour is due to genes, some argue we should be treating criminals for a "mental disorder" as we do for anxiety or depression, rather than punishing them with prison sentences. This is a moral and ethical issue for society. If aggression is genetic, some argue "biomarkers" (e.g. particular genes / brain function levels / hormones levels be used to identify who is at risk of violent crime. They could then be given treatment, support or restricted freedom before they become aggressive, preventing this behaviour

Answer 142

Brain Structure Evolution Hormones Raine

Answer 143

Reciprocal model of aggression | Raine

Answer 144

Abnormal functioning in the prefrontal cortex is associated with aggression and impulsivity, suggesting nature causes aggression as genes affect brain function

Answer 145

Natural Selection: In the EEA aggressive males would be more likely to have offspring that survive into adulthood, as they would be more successful at hunting and defending food resources from other males. Therefore their genes would be passed on due to natural selection. Therefore genes cause aggression Warrior Gene: The "warrior gene" is thought to predispose individuals to aggression or violence. This is a particular variation in X chromosome gene that produces MAOA. Therefore nature causes aggression.

Answer 146

Testosterone is known to cause aggressive behaviour. Animal studies so that castrating male rodents and stopping testosterone production reduces their aggressive behaviour in comparison to 'control' (not castrated) rats in situations involving threats or male competition. Testosterone levels are affected by genes (males have the Y chromosome and higher testosterone levels) showing genes can affect aggression.

Answer 147

Brain found significant differences in the brain activity for those pleading NGRI to a murder charge, in comparison to a control group. This could be due to their genes

Answer 148

The reciprocal model states aggressive or dominant behaviour can lead to increased testosterone, and this can further increase aggressive behaviour. Therefore nurture can cause aggression if the individual is in an aggressive environment.

Answer 149

Gage suffered damage to his pre-frontal cortex as a result of an accident at work with a metal rod, and subsequently, his behaviour became more aggressive. This suggests nurture can affect brain structure, and this can be the cause of aggression.

Answer 150

The differences in brain activity between the experimental and control group could have been caused by environmental factors such as neglect/abuse in childhood, or drug addiction. Therefore it is unclear which side of the debate Raine supports

Answer 151

The deterministic approach proposes that all behaviour is caused by preceding factors and is thus predictable. The casual laws of determinism form the basis of science Free will is the idea that we are able to have some choice in how we act and it assumes that we are free to choose our behaviour, in other words we are self-determined. For example people can make a free choice as to whether to commit a crime or not (unless they are a child or they are insane). This does not mean that behaviour is random, but we are free from the casual influences of past events. According to free will a person is responsible for their own actions

Answer 152

The finding that violent murderers have abnormal brain functioning may apply in the court system, whereby brain scans might serve to be helpful as part off a criminal investigation

Answer 153

- The sample of 57 same sex twins where one was diagnosed with schizophrenia were chosen - Permission was given to look at their hospital records. - Each twin was assessed to see if they were MZ or DZ twins; based on fingerprints, blood samples and appearance. - 24 pairs of MZ twins, and is 33 pairs of DZ twins were identified.

Answer 154

The findings have helped build a picture of the effect of the long-term misuse and provide a marker of brain damage, which helps to measure the severity of the effect of drug addiction. This has also helped create a model of the brain structures associated with addiction

Biological Flashcards

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