biological approach

Question 1

About the biological approach?

Answer 1

3 assumptions
Explanation for relationship formation
Psychosurgery (therapy)
Classic evidence: Raine, Buchsbaum, La Casse(1997) methodology, procedures, findings, conclusion
Classic evidence: Raine, Buchsbaum, La Casse(1997) evaluation of methodology, ethical and social issues, alternative evidence
Contemporary debate: Ethics of Neuroscience (Unit 2)
Evaluating the biological approach

Question 2

Introduction to the Biological Approach

Answer 2

The key assumption of the biological approach is that all behaviours can be explained at the level of functioning of our biological systems.
There are several strands to this approach:
The physiological approach: This approach believes that all human behaviour is due to the functioning of internal body parts, e.g., the brain, nervous system, hormones, and chemicals.
The nativist approach: It’s based on the assumption that all behaviour is inherited, i.e., it’s passed down through our genes from one generation to the next.
The medical model:This refers to the treatment of psychological disorders. It’s based on the same principles used to treat physical diseases. The argument is that psychological problems have a physical cause which can be treated using physical or medical methods.

Question 3

The 3 assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 3

Evolutionary influence
the brain

Question 4

Assumption 1?

Answer 4

Evolution means to change over time.
Within psychology, the theory of evolution has been used to explain how the human mind and behaviour have changed over millions of years.
It explains how it has adapted to the demands of our environments.

Question 5

The theory of natural selection?

Answer 5

The concept of adaptiveness stems from Darwin’s theory of natural selection, which posits that genetically determined behaviors that improve an individual’s survival and reproduction are favored. Natural selection operates at the gene level. For example, altruistic behavior, such as parents risking their lives for their offspring, is viewed as an inherited, adaptive trait since it enhances the survival of the individual’s gene pool.

Question 6

Environment of Evolutionary adaptiveness?

Answer 6

A key concept in the evolutionary approach is the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA), which refers to the environment to which a species is adapted and the selective pressures of that time. Evolutionary psychologists recognize that not all behaviors are adaptive; they focus on those that enhance individual survival in specific contexts. For humans, significant evolutionary changes occurred around 2 million years ago when we transitioned from forest to savanna environments. The EEA helps explain our relatively large brains, suggesting they evolved to support complex social structures. Individuals with skills in forming alliances and relationships are more likely to survive, leading to the passing on of genes associated with these behaviors.

Question 7

Assumption 2: the brain?
localisation of brain function?

Answer 7

This principle states that different brain areas are responsible for specific functions. The cerebral cortex, which covers the brain, is crucial for higher-order cognitive functions.

Question 8

the 4 lobes?

Answer 8

the cerebal cortex is divided into 4 regions
thee frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital

Question 9

the function of the frontal lobe?

Answer 9

These are involved in thinking and creativity. They have been linked to our personalities.

Question 10

Parietal lobe?

Answer 10

They receive sensory information, e.g., temperature, touch, and pain.

Question 11

Temporal lobes?

Answer 11

This is responsible for our memory processing. It also processes auditory information (speech).

Question 12

Occipital lobes?

Answer 12

It’s concerned with visual processing. It receives information directly from the eyes.

Question 12

Localisation of language?

Answer 12

Certain brain areas are linked to language processing, a concept established in the mid-19th century. French neurosurgeon Paul Broca studied patients with language issues and identified damage to a specific area in the left hemisphere, now known as Broca’s area, which is associated with speech production and located in the posterior frontal lobe. Similarly, German neurologist Karl Wernicke discovered Wernicke’s area, located in the posterior left temporal lobe, which is involved in understanding language. Patients with Wernicke’s area damage could speak but struggled to comprehend language.

Question 13

Assumption 3: neurotransmitters?

Answer 13

Assumption 3: Neurotransmitters

Neurons, the cells of the nervous system, communicate through electrical signals and are connected by dendrites at synapses, where chemical messengers called neurotransmitters transmit signals. These neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and either stimulate or inhibit the next neuron.

Neurotransmitters and Mental Health: Neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine are crucial to mental health. Low serotonin levels are linked to depression, and antidepressants often work by increasing serotonin availability. High dopamine levels are associated with schizophrenia, and drugs that block dopamine can help reduce its symptoms.

Question 14

Biological explanation for relationship formation?

Answer 14

Biological Explanation for Relationship Formation

Evolutionary theory suggests that relationships form based on traits that enhance reproductive success. Males, seeking to maximize reproduction, prefer fertile women (e.g., young, healthy, with physical signs of fertility like smooth skin and glossy hair). Females, in contrast, seek partners who can provide resources (e.g., food, shelter) for offspring survival.

Parental Investment Theory (Trivers, 1972) explains why younger women may prefer older men. Since females invest more in offspring (e.g., pregnancy), they are more selective in choosing partners who can offer resources for child-rearing.

Question 15

Neurotransmitters?

Answer 15

Neurotransmitters and Relationship Formation

Chemicals in the brain, like dopamine and oxytocin, influence emotions and perceptions, playing a key role in forming relationships.

Dopamine is associated with pleasure and reward. Setting a goal (e.g., finding a partner) triggers dopamine, giving a sense of achievement or “rush,” which explains the drive to form relationships.

Oxytocin (the “love hormone”) enhances trust and loyalty. High levels are linked to romantic attachment and bonding. Physical contact with a partner increases oxytocin, which explains why people feel the urge to reconnect after separation.

These chemicals suggest that our brain is naturally wired to form and maintain close, emotional relationships.

Question 16

Evaluating the formation of sibling relationships?

Answer 16

Explaining the Formation of Sibling Relationships

Evolutionary theory, particularly kin selection, helps explain the close bonds between siblings. Kin selection suggests that traits promoting the survival of relatives with similar genes are favored. Therefore, we are naturally inclined to invest in and care for our siblings, ensuring their well-being and, in turn, supporting the survival of shared family genes.

Question 17

Therapy 1: drug therapy?

Answer 17

Biological psychology explains behavior through biological factors such as neurochemicals, hormones, the brain, and the nervous system. It incorporates a physiological approach, which focuses on these influences, and a nativist approach, which considers genetic and evolutionary factors in shaping behavior. Drug therapy aims to treat mental health issues by altering chemical imbalances in the brain, addressing symptoms of disorders like depression and anxiety.

Question 18

How biological assumptions apply to drug therapy?

Answer 18

How Biological Assumptions Apply to Drug Therapy

The biological approach views psychological disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, schizophrenia) as having physiological causes, similar to physical illnesses. This is known as the medical model, which suggests mental illnesses are caused by physical factors and can be treated physically, typically through drug therapy.

The second assumption is that neurotransmitter imbalances contribute to mental disorders. Drug therapy works by altering neurotransmitter activity (e.g., increasing or blocking their action), thereby influencing mood, thoughts, and behavior.

The third assumption is localization of brain function, where drugs target specific brain regions involved in the disorder, such as the limbic system, which regulates emotions. This approach helps address emotional disturbances associated with mental health conditions.

Question 19

3 main types of psychoactive drugs?

Answer 19

The three main types of psychoactive drugs are antipsychotics, antidepressants, and antianxiety drugs.

Question 20

Antipsychotic drugs?

Answer 20

Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, where individuals lose touch with reality and lack insight into their condition. Conventional antipsychotics target positive symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain. Atypical antipsychotics, like clozapine, temporarily occupy dopamine receptors and quickly dissociate, allowing normal dopamine transmission. This mechanism may explain why atypical antipsychotics have fewer side effects, such as involuntary movements, compared to conventional ones.

Question 21

Antidepressant drugs?

Answer 21

Antidepressant drugs are used to treat depression, which is thought to result from insufficient neurotransmitters like serotonin. In a healthy brain, neurotransmitters stimulate neighboring neurons, and then are reabsorbed and broken down by an enzyme (Monoamine Oxidase A, MAOA). Antidepressants increase neurotransmitter availability by either reducing reabsorption or blocking the enzyme that breaks them down. The most common antidepressants are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as Prozac, which block serotonin reabsorption, prolonging its activity and making it easier for subsequent nerve impulses to transmit.

Question 22

Antianxiety drugs?

Answer 22

Antianxiety drugs, commonly benzodiazepines (BZs) like Librium and Valium, slow down the CNS by enhancing GABA, the body’s natural anxiety-relieving neurotransmitter. Beta blockers are also used to reduce anxiety by blocking the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline. They bind to receptors in the heart and other areas, making it harder to stimulate them, resulting in a slower heart rate, lower blood pressure, and a calmer, less anxious feeling.

Question 23

Sympathetic nervous system?

Answer 23

The sympathetic nervous system is activated in response to fear, preparing the body to fight or flee. It releases adrenaline or noradrenaline, causing physiological symptoms like increased heart rate, dry mouth, and sweating, which are common in anxious situations.

Question 24

Evaluation: effectiveness?

Answer 24

Drug treatments are often compared to placebos in randomized control trials to evaluate their effectiveness. For example, Sumaro et al. (2008) found SSRIs more effective than placebos in treating OCD. Kahn et al. (1986) showed that benzodiazepines (BZs) were superior to placebos for anxiety. However, most studies focus on short-term outcomes (3-4 months), with limited data on the long-term effects of these treatments.

Question 25

Side effects?

Answer 25

While drugs are effective in treating psychological disorders, they often come with side effects. Common side effects of SSRIs include nausea, headaches, and insomnia (Sumero et al., 2008), which may deter individuals from continuing the medication. Tricyclic antidepressants have more severe side effects, such as hallucinations and irregular heartbeat, and are typically used when SSRIs are ineffective.

Question 26

Symptoms not cause?

Answer 26

A criticism of drug therapy is that it treats symptoms, not the underlying causes of psychological disorders. For example, antidepressants may offer short-term relief for adult depression caused by childhood trauma, but they don't address the root cause. This can lead to the "revolving door syndrome," where patients repeatedly return for treatment without a permanent solution.

Question 27

Comparison with other treatment?

Answer 27

A criticism of drug therapy is that it treats symptoms, not the underlying causes of psychological disorders. For example, antidepressants may offer short-term relief for adult depression caused by childhood trauma, but they don't address the root cause. This can lead to the "revolving door syndrome," where patients repeatedly return for treatment without a permanent solution.

Question 28

Evaluation: ethical issues Use of placebo

Answer 28

The use of placebos in biological treatments raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding the effectiveness of drugs. Research ethics dictate that patients should not be given inferior treatments when effective ones exist. Using a placebo instead of an effective treatment violates this principle, as it exposes individuals to suboptimal care.

Question 29

Patient information?

Answer 29

An ethical issue in patient information is valid consent. Patients often struggle to retain information about side effects, especially when they are not in the right frame of mind. Some medical professionals may withhold information about drugs' limited benefits or exaggerate their effectiveness. They may also neglect to inform patients about alternative treatments, as drugs are often viewed as a quick fix.

Question 30

Classic evidence of Raine, Buchsbaum and Lacasse (1997)

Answer 30

Brain abnormalities in murderers, as indicated by positron emission tomography (PET), suggest physical differences between criminals and non-criminals. Early theories, like Cesare Lombroso's, proposed that criminals had physical traits such as a narrow forehead and protruding chin. With brain scans, research has shown that certain areas, such as the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus, may be involved in violent behavior. Studies on murderers pleading NGRI (not guilty by reason of insanity) showed dysfunction in specific brain areas linked to violence but not mental illness.

Question 31

Methodology of procedures?

Answer 31

This study used a quasi-experimental design with a matched pair approach, where participants were matched on key variables like age or IQ. The independent variable (IV) was whether participants were NGRI (not guilty by reason of insanity), and the dependent variable (DV) was brain differences. The sample included 41 murderers (39 men, 2 women) with a mean age of 34.3 years. All participants had been charged with murder or manslaughter and had pleaded NGRI. They were referred to the University of California for examination, and most had mental disorders, including schizophrenia, brain injury, and drug abuse. Participants were instructed to remain medication-free for two weeks before brain scans, which were verified with urine tests.

Question 32

Control group?

Answer 32

The control group was matched with murderers based on sex and age. Six schizophrenic murderers were paired with six schizophrenic individuals from a hospital, while the other controls had no psychiatric history or significant physical illnesses. None of the controls were taking medication, and there was no history of psychiatric illness in their close relatives.

Question 33

Procedures?

Answer 33

The sample was obtained using opportunity sampling. A PET scan was used to examine brain activity, with participants receiving an FDG injection to trace active brain areas. All participants performed a continuous performance task (CPT) to activate target brain areas, allowing for comparison between NGRI and control groups. The PET scan was conducted 32 minutes after the FDG injection, recording 20 horizontal brain slices using specific techniques to measure glucose values in different regions.

Question 34

Findings?

Answer 34

The study found reduced brain activity in NGRI participants in areas linked to violence, such as the prefrontal cortex, left angular gyrus, corpus callosum, and amygdala. Increased activity was observed in areas not typically associated with violence, including the cerebellum and right hemisphere. No differences were found between NGRI and control groups in brain areas unrelated to violence. Murderers showed abnormal asymmetries with reduced activity in the left brain and greater activity in the right. Performance on the continuous performance task (CPT) was similar for both groups, indicating that observed brain differences were not due to task performance.

Question 35

Other differences not controlled for ?

Answer 35

The study found some differences between the NGRI group and the control group. Handedness influenced brain activity, with left-handed murderers showing less amygdala asymmetry and higher prefrontal activity than right-handed ones. Ethnicity did not significantly affect brain activity, as no difference was found between non-white and white murderers. Additionally, murderers with a history of head injuries did not show differences in brain activity compared to those without such history.

Question 36

Conclusions?

Answer 36

The study supports previous research linking brain areas to aggression, showing that murderers pleading NGRI have different brain functioning compared to normal individuals. However, neural processes underlying violence are complex and cannot be attributed to a single brain structure. Violent behavior is likely caused by the disruption of a network of interacting brain mechanisms, which may predispose an individual to violent behavior rather than directly cause it.

Question 37

Confounding variables?

Answer 37

he study was well-designed with a large sample and matched controls, but Raine et al. acknowledged that head injury and IQ may have influenced the results.

Question 38

Warning?

Answer 38

Raine et al. emphasized that their results do not suggest that violent behavior is determined by biology alone, or that NGRI murderers are not responsible for their actions. The PET scans cannot diagnose violent individuals, nor do the results prove that brain dysfunction causes violence—it may be an effect. The findings suggest a link between brain dysfunction and a predisposition to violence in NGRI murderers, warranting further investigation.

Question 39

Evaluation: the methodology + procedures?

Answer 39

The study is a quasi-experiment because the independent variable (criminal status) was not manipulated by the experimenter. Therefore, causal conclusions cannot be drawn. Raine et al. acknowledged that violent behavior is not determined solely by biology, as psychological, cultural, and situational factors also play a role. The main limitation is that readers may misinterpret the findings and assume criminal behavior is predetermined.

Question 40

The research technique?

Answer 40

PET scans were used to study brain activity, allowing researchers to observe specific brain regions in action. Unlike post-mortem examinations, PET scans enable the study of brain physiology in relation to behavior, providing valuable insights into how individuals process information. This technique was key to Raine et al.'s research.

Question 41

Evaluation: the sample

Answer 41

The sample in Raine et al.'s study was not representative of all violent individuals, as it only included murderers with recognized mental impairments. Therefore, the findings are limited to this specific group and cannot be generalized to all violent offenders, especially those involved in crimes that do not involve murder.

Question 42

Evaluation: alternative evidence

Answer 42

Raine's continued research, including a 2009 meta-analysis by Yang and Raine, supports a link between brain dysfunction (particularly reduced prefrontal activity) and antisocial or violent behavior. Genetic studies, like those on the MAOA gene, also suggest a connection between genetic factors and violent crime. However, genes only predispose individuals to violence, as shown by Fallon, who had the genetic traits of a violent criminal but was not one due to positive childhood experiences. This highlights the diathesis-stress model, where genetic predispositions are triggered by environmental stressors.

Question 43

Ethical issues and social implications? valid consent

Answer 43

The main ethical issue in this study is valid consent, as the participants were murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity, raising concerns about their mental competence to consent. They may not have fully understood the tasks or the distressing nature of the PET scan, potentially causing psychological harm. Additionally, as prisoners, they might not have been fully aware of their right to withdraw from the study, which could have limited their ability to freely participate.

Question 44

Socially sensitive research

Answer 44

Socially sensitive research involves studies with implications for society, and in this case, the research on murderers raises concerns about the consequences of suggesting that criminal behavior may be biologically determined. If brain abnormalities are linked to violent behavior, individuals with similar conditions might be unfairly imprisoned or treated without considering their social circumstances. Therefore, careful decisions must be made regarding how such research is conducted and reported, to avoid stigmatizing certain groups.

Question 45

Contemporary debate?

Answer 45

The ethical debate surrounding neuroscience focuses on the balance between its benefits and costs. If the benefits outweigh the costs, neuroscience is considered ethical, as it provides valuable answers and insights.

Question 46

Understanding consciousness?

Answer 46

Francis Crick and Christof Koch (1998) proposed that the claustrum, a thin sheet of neurons in the brain's center, is the seat of consciousness. They suggest it acts as a conductor, integrating information from various brain regions. A case study of a 54-year-old woman with epilepsy supports this, as stimulating the claustrum caused her to lose consciousness temporarily. This research may inform decisions about patients in persistent vegetative states, helping determine whether they are conscious.

Question 47

Treat criminal behaviour?

Answer 47

The role of the criminal justice system (CJS) includes rehabilitating offenders to prevent recidivism. Neuroscience suggests that criminal behavior may stem from abnormal neurotransmitter levels, and drugs could be used as treatment. Cherek et al. (2002) studied impulsivity in males with conduct disorder and criminal behavior, finding that those given paroxetine (an SSRI antidepressant) showed a significant reduction in impulsiveness and aggression. This suggests that pharmacological treatments could reduce reoffending and improve societal safety.

Question 48

Enhanced neurological function?

Answer 48

Neuroscience can enhance the abilities of "normal" individuals, improving performance in academic tasks. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) has been shown to improve problem-solving, mathematical, language, memory, and attention skills (Cohen Kadosh et al., 2012). This technology could help students prepare for exams. Neuroenhancement isn't new, as many already use substances like caffeine for better focus. Neuroscience has also impacted marketing through "neuromarketing." Eye-tracking technology provides objective data on consumer behavior, helping brands, like Volkswagen, design successful advertisements that drive sales.

Question 49

Neuroscience is not ethical understand consciousness

Answer 49

The ethical concerns surrounding neuroscience include the implications of identifying consciousness in the brain. One key issue is whether life support should be withdrawn from individuals in a persistent vegetative state. The question arises whether the loss of consciousness justifies the moral right to end care.

Question 50

Treat criminal behaviour?

Answer 50

Neuroscientific links to criminal behavior may suggest neurological imbalances, but crime is often viewed as a response to social context. If neurological interventions were used for prisoners, there would be ethical concerns. Martha Farah (2004) argues that such interventions deny individual freedom, as prisoners would lose autonomy over their personality and thoughts. Offering criminals a choice between a prison term and medication raises issues of coerced compliance, leaving them with little choice about treatment.

Question 51

Enhanced neurological funcion?

Answer 51

Cohen Kadosh et al. highlight ethical concerns with TDCS technology. Without training or licensing requirements, unqualified practitioners could administer ineffective or harmful treatments. While TDCS devices are relatively cheap, they aren't accessible to everyone, raising fairness concerns. This prompts the question of whether neuroenhancement should be banned, similar to performance-enhancing substances in sports.

Question 52

Conclusion?

Answer 52

Neuroscience has significantly advanced, with Phineas Gage providing valuable insight into brain function. This has led to various explanations of both normal and abnormal behavior, offering three key perspectives on behavior.

Question 53

Improved marketing techniques?

Answer 53

Neuromarketing allows companies to access consumer preferences and behaviors, enhancing product marketing. Wilson et al. (2008) argue that it could manipulate free will by tailoring marketing messages to individuals, raising concerns about whether consumers can make informed decisions. Currently, neuromarketing firms aren't bound by ethical codes. Nelson (2008) found that 5% of brain scans revealed incidental findings, such as brain tumors, but researchers aren't obligated to follow ethical protocols due to a lack of certification.

Question 54

Evaluatng the biological approach Strengths?

Answer 54

The biological approach provides scientific explanations for behavior, focusing on the brain, neurotransmitters, and brain function localization. These biological systems offer measurable variables that can be studied objectively. Research like drug therapy and Raine et al's use of PET scans to compare brain activity in murderers supports the approach, demonstrating that it lends itself to scientific research and enables causal relationships to be established.

Question 55

Determinst approach?

Answer 55

A strength of the deterministic biological approach is that by understanding the factors that predetermine behavior, we can better treat abnormal behaviors. Research on neurotransmitters, like dopamine's link to schizophrenia, provides valuable insights into mental disorders. For example, amphetamines increase dopamine levels, producing symptoms similar to schizophrenia, while antipsychotics reduce dopamine levels to treat symptoms. Psychosurgery, such as cingulotomy for OCD, also offers evidence that brain activity is linked to mental disorders. Understanding these causes allows for targeted treatments, such as reducing stress to prevent physical illness, and provides a means of improving lives through biological interventions.

Question 56

Successful applications?

Answer 56

The biological approach has led to successful applications, such as linking abnormal neurotransmitter levels to criminal behavior, which has implications for pharmacological treatments to reduce recidivism. For example, Cherek et al. (2002) showed that males with conduct disorder and criminal behavior exhibited reduced aggression and impulsivity after 21 days of SSRI antidepressant treatment. The approach has also led to treatments for mental disorders like drug therapy and psychosurgery. Although drug therapy shows mixed results due to individual differences, it allows people with mental disorders to lead relatively normal lives outside of institutional care.

Question 57

Weaknesses of the biological approach?

Answer 57

Reductionist? The biological approach is reductionist, simplifying complex behaviors, such as stress, to factors like adrenaline. While reductionism helps in understanding systems, it may overlook the broader context. For example, in explaining schizophrenia as a physical malfunction, the approach ignores the emotional distress associated with mental illness, as highlighted by psychiatrist R.D. Laing (1965). Therefore, the biological approach provides an incomplete explanation of mental health issues.

Question 58

Nature rather than Nurture

Answer 58

The biological approach emphasizes nature, focusing solely on biological factors like neurotransmitter imbalances, while neglecting nurture and psychological influences such as how individuals feel. For example, in schizophrenia, the biological approach targets neurotransmitter levels instead of addressing the emotional experience of the patient. Thus, treatments focus on adjusting biological systems rather than engaging with the patient’s feelings.

Question 59

Individual differenes?

Answer 59

The biological approach is nomothetic, aiming to generalize behaviors and overlook individual differences. For example, stress affects people differently, with some producing higher adrenaline levels. It often assumes biological systems behave the same for everyone and tends to focus on male participants, as female hormonal cycles could interfere with research. This bias may lead to inaccurate portrayals of behavior. For example, Taylor et al. (2000) found that males react to stress with "fight or flight," while females tend to "tend and befriend," seeking support from others due to the hormone oxytocin.