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Biological Prospective Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the primary function of the endocrine system?

A

The endocrine system produces and releases hormones that regulate many of the body’s vital functions by releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream.

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2
Q

What is the pituitary gland known for, and where is it located?

A

Known as the “master gland” because its messenger hormones control other endocrine glands. It is located at the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus.

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3
Q

What are the key functions of the thyroid gland?

A

The thyroid gland controls the metabolic rate of cells, regulating growth, development, and metabolism in the body.

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4
Q

What is the role of the pancreas in the endocrine system?

A

The pancreas regulates blood sugar by secreting insulin and plays an essential role in digestion.

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5
Q

What hormones do the gonads produce, and what are their roles?

A

Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, and testes produce androgens like testosterone. These hormones are crucial for sexual development and behavior.

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6
Q

How do androgens and estrogens differ between males and females?

A

Androgens (e.g., testosterone) are more abundant in males and promote male traits. Estrogens are more abundant in females and promote female traits, but both hormones exist in both sexes in different quantities.

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7
Q

How does the body respond to stress through hormone production?

A

The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands produce cortisol during stress, helping manage energy demands. Chronic stress can lead to high cortisol levels, weakening the immune system and damaging the hippocampus, affecting memory.

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8
Q

What is the role of cortisol in the body?

A

Cortisol, produced by the adrenal glands, helps the body manage stress and maintain energy levels, but chronic overproduction can weaken the immune system and harm memory.

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9
Q

What are the functions of the major glands in the endocrine system?

A
  1. Pituitary Gland: Controls other endocrine glands, growth, and fluid regulation.
  2. Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism and growth.
  3. Adrenal Glands: Produce cortisol, which helps manage stress.
  4. Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar levels.
  5. Gonads (Ovaries/Testes): Produce sex hormones involved in reproduction and sexual behavior.
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10
Q

How do endocrine glands differ from other glands like sweat glands?

A

Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream, affecting internal organs and tissues, whereas other glands like sweat glands excrete substances outside the body.

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11
Q

Why is the pituitary gland called the “master gland,” and where is it located?

A

The pituitary gland is called the “master gland” because its messenger hormones control other endocrine glands. It is located at the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus.

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12
Q

What are the main functions of the pituitary gland?

A

The pituitary gland works closely with the hypothalamus, secreting growth hormones, endorphins for pain relief, and hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body.

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13
Q

Where is the thyroid gland located, and what is its primary role?

A

The thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck and controls the metabolic rate of cells, regulating growth, development, and metabolism in the body.

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14
Q

What is the function of the pancreas in the endocrine system?

A

The pancreas is an abdominal organ responsible for digestion and regulating blood sugar levels through the secretion of insulin.

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15
Q

What hormones do the gonads produce, and what are their roles?

A

The gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males) produce sex hormones—estrogen and progesterone in females, and androgens like testosterone in males—which are crucial for sexual development, reproduction, and influencing sexual motivation and behavior.

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16
Q

Do only males have androgens and females have estrogens?

A

No, both androgens and estrogens are present in both males and females but in different quantities. Androgens promote male traits, while estrogens promote female traits, and both influence motivation and behavior.

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17
Q

How do hormones influence sexual development and behavior?

A

Hormones like androgens and estrogens influence physical traits associated with male and female characteristics and modify motivation, affecting how we behave in response to specific stimuli related to reproduction and sexual activity.

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18
Q

What is cortisol, and which glands produce it?

A

Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress, helping the body manage increased energy demands during stressful situations.

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19
Q

What are the negative effects of chronic stress on the endocrine system?

A

Chronic stress can lead to overproduction of cortisol, resulting in:

  1. Weakened immune system: Increased vulnerability to infections and slower wound healing.
  2. Brain damage: Potential damage to the hippocampus, leading to memory problems.
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20
Q

What is the neuroendocrine system?

A

The neuroendocrine system describes the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system. The central nervous system (CNS) regulates the endocrine system and receives feedback from it, affecting how the brain processes information and how the body reacts to situations.

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21
Q

What are androgens, and what role do they play in the body?

A

Androgens, such as testosterone, are male sex hormones produced by the testes (and in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands in both sexes). They promote male traits like facial hair and deeper voices and are involved in male sexual development and reproduction.

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22
Q

What are estrogens, and what role do they play in the body?

A

Estrogens are female sex hormones produced by the ovaries (and in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands in both sexes). They promote female traits like breast development and play a role in the female reproductive system and menstrual cycle.

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23
Q

How does cortisol help the body during stressful situations?

A

Cortisol helps the body manage increased energy demands by:

  1. Increasing blood sugar levels.
  2. Suppressing the immune system.
  3. Aiding in metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
  4. Providing energy to cope with stress.
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24
Q

What are the potential consequences of prolonged high levels of cortisol?

A

Prolonged high levels of cortisol can lead to:

  1. Weakened immune response: Making the body more susceptible to infections.
  2. Memory problems: Due to potential damage to the hippocampus.
  3. Weight gain: Particularly around the abdomen.
  4. Increased risk of chronic diseases: Such as hypertension and diabetes.
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25
How do hormones act as chemical messengers in the body?
Hormones travel through the bloodstream to target organs and tissues, binding to specific receptors to influence physical functions and affect emotions, thoughts, and behaviors.
26
Why is the interaction between the endocrine system and nervous system important?
Understanding this interaction helps explain how thoughts, behaviors, and bodily functions are interconnected, as hormones can influence brain activity and vice versa, maintaining homeostasis and coordinating responses to stress.
27
What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. It controls many bodily functions, including: 1. Temperature regulation. 2. Hunger and thirst. 3. Circadian rhythms (sleep-wake cycles). 4. Release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
28
How does the endocrine system maintain homeostasis in the body?
By releasing hormones that regulate vital functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress responses, ensuring the body's internal environment remains stable despite external changes.
29
What are the adrenal glands, and what hormones do they produce?
The adrenal glands are located atop the kidneys and produce hormones like: 1. Cortisol: For stress response. 2. Adrenaline (epinephrine): Increases heart rate and energy in fight-or-flight situations. 3. Aldosterone: Regulates blood pressure by controlling sodium and potassium levels.
30
How does the pancreas regulate blood sugar levels?
The pancreas secretes: 1. Insulin: Lowers blood sugar by facilitating glucose uptake into cells. 2. Glucagon: Raises blood sugar by signaling the liver to release stored glucose.
31
What is the effect of insulin on the body?
Insulin helps cells absorb glucose from the bloodstream for energy or storage, thereby lowering blood sugar levels.
32
How do the hormones estrogen and progesterone function in the female reproductive system?
They regulate: 1. Menstrual cycle. 2. Ovulation. 3. Pregnancy. 4. Secondary sexual characteristics.
33
What is the significance of the hormonal feedback loop between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and other endocrine glands?
It maintains hormonal balance through a system of checks and balances, where the hypothalamus and pituitary gland monitor and adjust hormone levels by stimulating or inhibiting other endocrine glands.
34
How does the endocrine system influence emotions and behavior?
Hormones can affect neurotransmitter function and brain activity, influencing mood, stress responses, aggression, and other behaviors.
35
What role do endorphins play in the endocrine system?
Endorphins are hormones produced by the pituitary gland that act as natural painkillers and mood elevators.
36
Why is it important to understand the effects of hormones on both physical and emotional health?
Because hormonal imbalances can lead to physical illnesses and impact mental health, understanding their effects can help in diagnosing and treating various conditions.
37
What is homeostasis, and how does the endocrine system contribute to it?
Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment. The endocrine system contributes by releasing hormones that regulate bodily functions to keep conditions within optimal ranges.
38
What are the two main components of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which act as the command center for processing information and controlling both voluntary and involuntary actions.
39
What role does the spinal cord play in the CNS?
The spinal cord transmits information between the brain and the rest of the body and initiates reflex actions without involving the brain, allowing for rapid responses to stimuli.
40
What are interneurons, and what is their role in reflex actions?
Interneurons in the spinal cord coordinate communication between sensory and motor neurons during reflexes. They can also inhibit reflexes by receiving signals from the brain, such as when holding a sharp object carefully.
41
List the spinal cord regions and the areas they control.
1. Cervical region: Controls neck, diaphragm, arms, and hands. 2. Thoracic region: Controls trunk and abdominal muscles. 3. Lumbar region: Controls hips, legs, and feet. 4. Sacral region: Controls bladder, bowel, and reproductive organs.
42
How does the severity of spinal cord injuries relate to their location?
Injuries to the spinal cord become more severe the closer they are to the brain, as higher regions control vital organs and muscles lower in the body.
43
What is the role of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
The PNS connects the CNS to the body’s organs, muscles, and sensory receptors, enabling communication between the brain and the rest of the body.
44
What are the two main subsystems of the PNS?
1. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion. 2. Somatic Nervous System (SNS): Controls voluntary movements and sensory information.
45
What does the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) regulate, and what are its two branches?
The ANS regulates involuntary bodily functions. Its two branches are: 1. Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for stress or emergencies (fight-or-flight). 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy after a stressful event.
46
How does the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) respond to stress?
The SNS increases heart rate, dilates pupils, slows digestion, and directs blood flow to muscles, preparing the body for quick action in emergencies.
47
What is the role of the Parasympathetic Nervous System?
The Parasympathetic Nervous System counteracts the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, calming the body by slowing the heart rate, stimulating digestion, and conserving energy.
48
What are sensory and motor neurons in the Somatic Nervous System (SNS)?
1. Sensory neurons: Receive stimuli from sensory organs and send information to the brain. 2. Motor neurons: Send signals from the brain to muscles, allowing voluntary movements like moving your arms or legs.
49
How does the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) enable interaction with the environment?
The SNS allows you to perceive stimuli (e.g., seeing a ball) and respond with voluntary actions (e.g., catching the ball).
50
What are reflex actions, and how do they work?
Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli that occur without brain involvement. Sensory neurons detect stimuli, and interneurons in the spinal cord send signals to motor neurons for rapid responses, like pulling your hand away from something hot.
51
What is the relationship between the CNS and PNS?
The CNS processes information, while the PNS gathers sensory information from the body and environment and sends it to the CNS. The CNS then sends signals back through the PNS to control muscles and organs.
52
What are the roles of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems?
1. Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for action during stress by increasing heart rate and blood flow to muscles. 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body after stress by slowing the heart rate and conserving energy.
53
What is the importance of reflexes?
Reflexes allow for quick, automatic responses to harmful stimuli, bypassing the brain for faster reactions, which help protect the body from danger.
54
How do the CNS and PNS maintain homeostasis?
The PNS sends sensory information to the CNS, which processes it and sends signals back through the PNS to control muscles and organs, ensuring that the body responds appropriately to changes in its environment and maintains balance.
55
What is the function of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
The ANS operates automatically, regulating vital functions like heart rate, breathing, digestion, and blood pressure without conscious control.
56
How can unnecessary activation of the Sympathetic Nervous System affect people?
Unnecessary activation of the Sympathetic Nervous System, such as in anxiety disorders, can lead to symptoms like hyperventilation, sweating, and increased heart rate.
57
Why are injuries to the spinal cord more severe when they occur closer to the brain?
Injuries closer to the brain are more severe because higher regions of the spinal cord control vital organs and muscles lower in the body, which can lead to more critical consequences.
58
What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), and how do they interact?
1. Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates during stress to prepare for action. 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body after stress, helping restore balance.
59
What is the role of the Somatic Nervous System (SNS)?
The SNS controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information to the CNS, allowing interaction with the environment through actions like walking, talking, and responding to stimuli.
60
What is sensation?
Sensation is the process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment, allowing the brain to process and interpret them.
61
What is the role of vision in sensation?
Vision is the most dominant human sense, where light waves are detected by receptor cells in the eye (retina), converted into neural signals, and processed by the cerebral cortex to determine characteristics like shape, color, and texture.
62
What is bottom-up processing in vision?
Bottom-up processing refers to how sensory information from the environment builds up to create a perception, starting from light waves striking the retina and sending signals to the brain.
63
What is top-down processing in vision?
Top-down processing is guided by previous knowledge, memories, or expectations, helping us recognize familiar objects more easily, like identifying an apple by its shape and color.
64
How does hearing work in the sensory system?
Hearing begins when sound waves (pressure waves) strike the ear, triggering movements that convert them into neural signals, which the brain interprets as sound.
65
What is the role of the inner ear in balance?
The inner ear, specifically the semicircular canals filled with fluid and hair cells, detects body movement and orientation, sending information to the brain to maintain balance and spatial awareness.
66
What is the lock-and-key model in smell (olfaction)?
The lock-and-key model explains how specific chemicals (odors) bind to receptors in the nose that fit their molecular shape, sending signals to the brain for processing.
67
How is smell linked to memory and emotions?
Smell signals are processed by the olfactory bulb, which is closely connected to the limbic system (emotion) and thalamus (memory), which is why smells often trigger strong memories and emotions.
68
What are the basic types of tastes detected by humans?
Humans can detect five basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory).
69
How often do taste buds regenerate, and how does sensitivity differ between children and adults?
Taste buds regenerate every 10 days. Children typically have more sensitive taste buds than adults, which explains their stronger food preferences.
70
What is the kinesthetic sense?
The kinesthetic sense refers to awareness of body movements and limb position, helping to coordinate physical actions.
71
What is the vestibular sense?
The vestibular sense is the sense of balance, controlled by the inner ear, which helps maintain orientation and spatial awareness.
72
What are some additional senses beyond the traditional five?
Additional senses include: 1. Touch: Sensitivity to pressure, temperature, and pain. 2. Temperature Sensitivity: Awareness of changes in temperature. 3. Pain: Detection of harmful stimuli, crucial for survival.
73
What is the role of sensory receptors in touch?
Sensory receptors in the skin detect pressure, temperature, and pain, sending signals to the brain to interpret and respond to physical sensations.
74
What are the potential debates around other senses like magnetic sense or ESP?
There are ongoing debates about additional senses like magnetic sense and extrasensory perception (ESP), but these are not widely accepted in scientific communities.
75
What is the relationship between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the process of gathering sensory information, while perception is the brain's interpretation and organization of that information to understand the environment.
76
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the reception of sensory stimuli by the sensory receptors, while perception involves the brain organizing and interpreting these sensory inputs to form an understanding of the world.
77
How does vision process sensory information?
Light waves trigger specialized receptors in the eye, and these signals are sent to the brain’s cerebral cortex to be processed into meaningful images and shapes.
78
What is the primary function of the endocrine system?
The endocrine system produces hormones that regulate various bodily functions, such as growth, mood, and development.
79
What are the main components of the central nervous system (CNS)?
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and sending out information.
80
What is the function of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body, facilitating communication between the brain, organs, muscles, and sensory receptors.
81
What does the somatic nervous system control?
The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, like muscle actions.
82
What does the autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulate?
The ANS controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
83
What role does the sympathetic nervous system play in the body?
The sympathetic nervous system initiates the fight-or-flight response, preparing the body for stressful situations by increasing heart rate and adrenaline levels.
84
How does the parasympathetic nervous system function after stress?
It calms the body down by slowing the heart rate and promoting relaxation.
85
What is sensation?
Sensation is the process of receiving input from the environment through sensory organs, which then send signals to the brain.
86
What is perception?
Perception is the brain's interpretation of sensory signals to make sense of the world around us, connecting sensory input with memories and emotions.
87
What is top-down processing in perception?
Top-down processing is when prior knowledge, expectations, or beliefs influence how we perceive sensory information.
88
What is Gestalt processing in visual perception?
Gestalt processing helps the brain organize visual input into coherent whole forms, grouping objects by proximity, similarity, and other principles.
89
Why is the sense of smell closely linked to memory and emotion?
Smell is processed in areas of the brain that are also involved in emotion and memory, such as the limbic system and thalamus.
90
How did Omar calm himself after activating his sympathetic nervous system?
Omar calmed down by activating his parasympathetic nervous system, which slowed his heart rate and helped him relax through deep breathing.
90
How does the sympathetic nervous system affect Omar before he proposes to Sara?
Omar's sympathetic nervous system causes his heart to race and his body to sweat, preparing him for the stressful situation.
91
How are the senses of taste and smell connected?
Both senses involve chemical signals and are closely linked, often contributing to the full experience of flavor and emotional recall.
92
What was the first process that occurred when Lulu smelled a familiar scent at the café?
Sensation, where her olfactory receptors detected the smell and sent signals to her brain.
93
How did perception play a role in Lulu’s experience with the café scent?
Her brain associated the scent with memories of her grandmother's cookies, linking the sensory experience with past emotions.

Foundations of Psychology (7 decks)

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