Biological Psychology Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
Name the parts of a neuron
A
Nucleus Dendrite
Myelin Sheath
Axon terminal
Terminal Button
Node of Ranvir
2
Q
What is the myelin sheath?
A
Fatty substances that insulate and protect the axon.| It speeds up transmission of information.
3
Q
What is the axon?
A
Goes from cell body to terminal endings.Neutral signal is passed down it.The larger it is, the faster the transmission.
4
Q
What is the terminal button / synaptic knob?
A
The end of the neuron.Sends the signal to the surrounding neurons through neurotransmitters.Gap at the end is the synapse.
5
Q
What is the dendrites?
A
Extensions at the start of the neuron.Increases surface area of a cell body.They receive the info from other neurons and transmit electrical simulations to soma.
6
Q
What is the cell body?
A
Contains the nucleus that looks after the cell.
7
Q
What is a neurotransmitter?
A
A chemical released at the end of a neuron to pass an electrical message to another neuron, muscle or gland.eg serotonin
8
Q
Describe the process that our CNS goes through when we touch a hot pan.
A
- Touch a hot pan.- Sensory neuron detects heat info and sends it to our CNS.- CNS sends a message to the motor neurons.- Motor neuron tell muscles to contract.- Move hand away from hot pan.
9
Q
What are neurons?
A
Cells that specialise in transmitting information around the body.They use electricity and chemicals (neurotransmitters)
10
Q
Give an overview of neurotransmission.
A
Action potential (electrical impulse) passed down presynaptic neuron.Vesicles move to edge of synaptic button and dump neurotransmitters into synapse.Receptors on the postsynaptic neuron take up neurotransmitters.Postsynaptic neuron is either encouraged to fire or not fire.Neurotransmitters in synapse are either broken down or transported back up into presynaptic neuron.
11
Q
How does action potential affect vesicles?
A
Causes the vesicles to migrate to the cell membrane.The action potential tells the vesicles how much neurotransmitter to release into the synapse.
12
Q
What to vesicles do?
A
Contain neurotransmitters which are synthesised in the presynaptic cell and stored in the vesicles.
13
Q
What do the neurotransmitters do in the synapse?
A
Float until they hit the correct receptor (like a key and lock)If they are left, they can either be broken down by enzymes or taken back up into the presynaptic neuron by transporters.
14
Q
What does heroin do to the brain?
A
- It turns into morphine and binds to opioid receptors.- This stops the release of GABA.- GABA inhibits the release of dopamine, so if GABA is not released there is more dopamine.- The release of dopamine activates the reward system causing the user to feel euphoric and high.-Also reduces pain as opioid stop transmission of pain signals to the brain.
15
Q
What does cannabis do to the brain?
A
- Attaches to anandamide receptors, present all over the brain.- Anandamide regulates mood, appetite, pain, thinking and emotions and also inhibits the release of dopamine.- Cannabis allows release of dopamine, activating te reward system.
16
Q
What are the 4 sections that form the cerebral cortex?
A
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
- Temporal lobe
17
Q
What is the frontal lobe associated?
A
Associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movements, emotions and problem solving.
18
Q
What is the parietal lobe associated with?
A
Movement
orientation
recognition
perception of stimuli.
19
Q
What is the occipital lobe associated with?
A
visual processing
20
Q
What is the temporal lobe associated with?
A
Perception and recognition of auditory stimuli
Memory
Speech
21
Q
What is the function of the prefrontal cortex?
A
Executive function
Influences attention, impulse inhibition, prospective memory and cognitive flexibility.
22
Q
What is the function of the cerebellum?
A
Coordinates voluntary movements
23
Q
What is the function of the inferotemporal cortex?
A
Visual recognition of objects| Visual processing
24
Q
What is the function of the hippocampus?
A
Memory| Spatial navigation and oreintation
25
What is the function of the amygdala?
Controls emotions and behaviour.| -mostly fear
26
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Homeostasis - maintenance of the body's equilibriumControls hormones
27
Which areas of the brain are associated with aggression?
PAG
Amygdala
Hypothalamus
Prefrontal Cortex
28
How is the amygdala associated with aggression?
The amygdala is responsible for our emotions, behaviour and motivation.When it is stimulated we display aggression or fear. People with amygdala problems/damage may be overly aggressive as the information is misinterpreted and so act inappropriately. Can cause people to be under or overly aggressive depending on area damaged and to what extent it's damaged.
29
How is the PAG associated with aggression?
Links the amygdala and hypothalamus to the pre frontal cortex. Co-ordinates someone's behaviour in response to stressors, both internal and external.
30
How is the Hypothalamus associated with aggression?
Uses hormones to keep our body in homeostasis including testosterone in males.Has receptors that determine aggression levels through interactions with serotonin and vasopressin.Lateral parts of hypothalamus are associated with anger and aggressionWhen activated anger is usually in the form of kicking, biting and throwing objects
31
How is the prefrontal cortex associated with aggression?
Responsible for social interactions and controlling our behaviour, allowing us to delay gratification of our impulses.If it is damaged we may be under the control of or impulses, such as anger management issues.Inhibits the amygdala, so can reduce aggression.If damaged it can no longer inhibit the amygdala.
32
Strengths of brain functioning as an explanation of aggression
Flynn (2006) - found stimulating the lateral area of the hypothalamus in cats led to predatory aggression. (But this is predatory aggression, not rage aggression, and humans don't have this)
Zagrodzka et al (1998) - carried out research on cats and found damage to the amygdala was significant in inducing predator like attacks
33
What is evolution?
How an organism's characteristics change through generations.
34
What is natural selection?
The organisms that are best adapted to their environment have the best chance of reproducing, which means their genes will be passed on to future generations.
35
How does evolution affect parental investment?
Males look for as many fertile females to have as many children as possible so their genes will be carried on.Females look for dependable, caring males so that they can be looked after and their child has a greater chance of surviving.
36
Why has aggression evolved?
To gain territoryTo defend against attacksTo inflict a cost on some same-sex rivalsTo negotiate status and power hierarchies To deter rivals from future aggressionTo deter mates from infidelity
37
Strengths of the evolutionary explanation of aggression
Wilson and Daly 1985 - Homicide is more common in poor and unmarried men than in richer, married ones. The poorer, unmarried men need to take more risks and be more aggressive to attract women.
Female aggression is more verbal against other females to maintain status and reduce competition's attractiveness. Especially by using verbal criticism of their physical attractiveness and their promiscuity. Men only want to raise their children and so promiscuity is unattractive.
38
Weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation of aggression
Doesn't explain why we may invest time and resources into raising other people's children such as through adopting or step families because it doesn't increase the chance of survival for our own children as resources are shared.
We can't scientifically test it through experimentation as we can't go back and see the change in aggression over time and see if they were more successful.
39
What is jealousy?
Emotional response to anticipated loss of affection and/or status
40
What is infidelity?
Unfaithfulness of sexual partners
41
What is sexual infidelity?
Any behaviour involving sexual contact
42
What is emotional infidelity?
Formation of affectional attachment to another person, van involve flirting or intimate conversations
43
Why do men express jealousy?
Can't risk wasting investment on offspring who aren't theirs so they show more jealous violent aggression towards female fidelity both towards the male competition and long term female mates especially if she is young and reproductively valuable.
44
Why do women express jealousy?
If a male is unfaithful the female partner risks losing his time, resources, energy, protection and commitment to her children.Females can always guarantee that their offspring are their own and compete with females for the quality of men, not the availabilityWomen take fewer risks with violence and use more indirect forms of aggression
45
What are the two instincts mentioned in Freud's theory of aggression that belongs in the unconscious?
Eros - concerned with keeping us aliveThanatos - death instinct, tries to kill us
46
What are the parts of the mind according to Freud's theory?
Conscious
Pre-conscious
Unconscious
47
What is the conscious?
What we are thinking about and are aware of at this moment in time.
48
What is the pre-conscious?
What we are not thinking about but is accessible if we need it.
49
What is the unconscious?
What we are not aware of.Desires, thoughts and memories that we can't cope with are put here.
50
What are the structures of the personality according to Freud?
IDEgoSuper Ego
51
What does the Ego do?
It has to mediate between the ID (Instincts/pleasure) and Super Ego (Morality).
52
Describe ID, Ego and Super Ego in a psychotic person
They have an overpowering ID but still have a Super Ego that feels guilt
53
Describe the ID, Ego and Super Ego in a psychopathic person
They have an overpowering Id but no Super Ego, and therefore feel no guilt
54
Name 2 defence mechanisms
Sublimation and Displacement
55
What is sublimation?
Expressing undesirable thoughts or emotions in acceptable wayseg showing aggression through playing rugby
56
What is displacement?
Not taking your anger out on the person you are angry with, but with something else.eg kicking the cat when your angry with your Mum
57
What is catharsis?
Bringing unconscious thoughts to the conscious and releasing them in an acceptable way. Allows unconscious thoughts to be expressed through fantasy or action. eg watching violent TV or playing a violent sport
58
Name 2 strengths of Freud's theory
Feshback and Singer - found that high school students who viewed violent TV committed fewer aggressive acts than those who did not.Kunter and Olson - found that 62% of players reported that playing violent video games helped them to relax, while 45% said it helped release their anger.
59
Name 2 weaknesses of Freud's theory
Bushman - found that ppts that hit a punching bag were more likely to administer a loud noise to someone who insulted them than those who didn't Lack of objective, scientific data as the unconscious, id and thanatos are not directly observable
60
What are hormones?
Chemical messengers that travel throughout the body in the bloodstream. They take longer to relay their message to areas of the body compared to neurotransmitters.
61
How does testosterone affect aggression?
Testosterone increases aggression.Exposure to it before birth is thought to lead to increased aggression.Testosterone affects levels of serotonin, affecting our moods negatively and, therefore, increasing aggression.In males, increased testosterone increases their competitive responses, especially in relation to sex, leading to increased aggression. Testosterone is thought to increase activity in the amygdala and hypothalamus, making a person more likely to respond to situations with aggression.
62
How does cortisol affect aggression?
Cortisol increases with stress.Low cortisol levels lead to aggressive behaviour as they have an under-aroused autonomic nervous system (ANS), so aggression is needed to increase arousal. This leads to an increase in cortisol and, therefore, stress. Cortisol also helps to inhibit aggressive behaviour, so low cortisol levels do not have the same mediating effect.
63
Name 2 strengths of hormones as an explanation for aggression.
Dabbs et al. - measured testosterone levels in 89 male prisoners and found the levels of testosterone were higher in males who had committed violent crimes compared to those who hadn'tAdelson - stimulated aggression control centres in rats and found increased stress hormones in their blood, so stress can lead to aggression and vice versa.
64
Name 2 weaknesses of hormones as an explanation of aggression
Animals are in artificial situations when aggression is studied, and their social behaviour is not the same as humans, so the results may not be generalisable to humans.Gerra et al. - found that ppts that had higher levels of aggression also had higher levels of cortisol
65
What were the aims of Raine et al?
To see if murders who plead not guilty to murder by reasons of insanity (NGRI) will have brain dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus etc
66
Describe the sample of Raine et al
41 ppts from California (39 male, 2 female)Mean age - 34.3All charged with murder or manslaughter All NGRI6 had schizophrenia, 23 had brain damage/injuryAll had been medication free for 2 weeks, and urine tests were used to confirm this.There was a control group of 39 males and 2 females Matched to murders in age and gender6 schizophrenics were matched to the 6 schizophrenic murderers None were taking medicationSo 82 in total
67
Describe the procedure of Raine et al
10 mins before injection, they were given practice trials of continuous performance task (CPT) 30 seconds before injection CPT startedA glucose tracer was injected and they did CPT for 32 minutesThey then had a PET scan Took 10 slices at 10mm apart starting at 80% level of head height
68
Describe the results of Raine et al
Low levels of glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortexHigh glucose metabolism in the occipital lobeDifferent levels of activity in the amygdala
69
Describe the conclusion of Raine et al
Murders do have differences in brain activity to non-murderers A single brain mechanism can't be said to cause violence but is probably caused by multipleViolence is not just down to biology, other factors play a role
70
Evaluate the generalisability of Raine et al
Large sample size - 82 pptsAndrocentric - mainly males, but most murderers are males, so not as importantEthnocentric - all from California
71
Evaluate the reliability of Raine et al
Standardised procedure - all did the same CPT, same PET scan etcControls - urine tests; matched on age, gender and schizophrenia
72
Evaluate the application of Raine et al
Can now use PET scans to reduce sentences if found to have brain abnormalities Can sue lawyers if they didn't get a brain scan (USA) as the defence wasn't fully developed
73
Evaluate the validity of Raine et al
Ecological validity - PET scans done in labs Task validity - CPT is not a natural taskInternal validity - They did measure brain activityDemand characteristics - You can't change your brain patterns
74
Evaluate the ethics of Raine et al
Protection from harm - no medication for 2 weeks could have caused symptoms to return (eg schizophrenia) causing them harm
75
What were the aims of Li et al?
To investigate whether chronic heroin use is associated with craving related changes in the functional connectivity of the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) of heroin addictsTo see if there was a relationship between dysfunctional connectivity of the PCC and heroin dependence.
76
Describe the sample of Li et al
14 male pptsAll aged between 18 and 50All had been addicted to heroin for an average of 89.3 monthsHeroin addiction was diagnosed with DSM IV All addicts came from a drug rehab centre in ChinaAll addicts were in the detoxification stage, measured through heroin in urineAll were clean from heroinAll not using any other illicit drugAll had to be right-handedExcluded if they had any past/current psychiatric illness, neurological signs or disease, head trauma, cardiovascular or endocrine disease, claustrophobia, any magnetic objects in their body or any illness that would prevent an MRI scan 15 control ppts who were healthy and had no drug dependency (other than nicotine), head injuries or psychiatric disorders
77
Describe the procedure of Li et al
Each ppts had 2 scans: one in resting and one during the heroin cue reactivity testDuring the first scan, they were told to focus on the crosshair, relax and not moveAfter a practice run of 10 seconds, ppts saw 24 heroin-related pictures and 24 non-heroin-related pictures for 2 seconds with the cross hair for 4-12 seconds between each picture.Craving was assessed before and after the pictures were shown using a visual analogue scale eg 1 = no craving and 10 = a lot of cravingDrug-related activity scans vs neutral scans were compared for each groupDifferences in nicotine dependence were checked using a Wilcoxon rank sum test
78
Describe the results of Li et al
Heroin addicts' subject craving increased by 0.98 before and after the cue-induced craving task.Heroin addicts had significantly higher subject cravings after the task than non-addicts.Heroin addicts had more activity in the bilateral PCC when looking at the heron cues
79
Describe the conclusions of Li et al
The connectivity of the PCC and duration of heroin were positively correlated, suggesting these areas of the brain are associated with heroin dependence and are involved in craving.However, we can not say heroin use causes changes within the brain as they didn't look at this in this study
80
Evaluate the generalisability of Li et al
Small sample size - 29 ppts Androcentric - only male pptsEthnocentric - all from rehab centre in ChinaChina is quite authoritarian, so ppts may not be truthful about craving as they may feel that's what they should say in a rehab centre
81
Evaluate the reliability of Li et al
Standardised procedure - all saw 48 pictures and cross hair for the same amount of time etcControls - excluded things that could have affected results such as head injury, psychiatric illness, other illicit drugs etc
82
Evaluate the application of Li et al
We now know to provide care plans when sending addicts back into society in order to shield them from cues that could cause relapse
83
Evaluate the validity of Li et al
Ecological validity - the rehab centre is a familiar settingTask validity - MRI scans are not natural behaviour Demand characteristics - Can't change MRI results, but craving scale is self-report data and so may not be accurate (authoritarian culture may affect this)
84
Evaluate the ethics of Li et al
Protection from harm - all the exclusions prevent harm being caused to the ppts e.g. magnetic items mean they can't do an MRI scan as this could rip objects out of their body
85
What does a correlation look for?
A relationship between two variables.
86
What is a positive correlation?
When one variable increases so does the other.
87
What is a negative correlation?
When one variable increases the other decreases.
88
What type of graph are correlations shown on?
Scatter graph
89
What is the value of a perfect positive correlation/
+1
90
What is the value of a perfect negative correlation?
-1
91
What direction does a positive correlation create?
/Up from left to right
92
What direction does a negative correlation create?
\Down from left to right
93
What are the 4 levels of measurement/types of data?
NominalOrdinalIntervalRatio
94
What is Nominal data?
Most basic level of measurementUsed when data is put into tally charts/categoriesOnly tells us how many ppts picked each optionDoesn't give an individual score for each ppts
95
What is Ordinal data?
Used when data can be ordered eg 1st, 2nd, 3rdCan't tell the gap between 1st and 2nd etcAlways used with questionnairesGives us an individual score for each ppts
96
What is Interval data?
The distance between each score has a meaning and equal value.eg gap between 5-10cm is same as 20-25cm0 is just another number on the scale, it does not mean there is nothingeg 0 degrees c doesn't mean there's no temperature
97
What is Ratio data?
The distance between each score has meaning and an equal value.However, 0 does mean nothing.eg 0 seconds to do something means it took no time
98
What is a Type 1 error?
If you reject the null hypothesis and it is actually trueHappens when the level of significance is too lenient
99
What is a Type 2 error?
If you keep the null hypothesis when your experiment did work. (when there is a significant difference)Happen when the level of significance is too harsh
100
What level of probability do we start at?
p <= 0.05The probability the results are due to chance is equal to or less than 5%(unless we're trying to disprove someone else's results. Then we start at p <= 0.01)
101
What test do we use on correlations?
Spearman's rho
102
Strengths of correlation
- Useful as a preliminary research techniques, allowing a link to be identified that can be further investigated.- Can be used for sensitive topics as no deliberate manipulation of variables is required.
103
Weaknesses of correlation
- Correlations only identify a link, they don't identify which variables causes which. A 3rd variable may be influencing the results that's not considered.- Lack of correlation may not mean there is no relationship, it could be non-linear.
104
What are the 3 scanning methods?
CATPETfMRI
105
Describe a CAT scan
- Uses X-rays to take images of the brain- person lays on a bed that slowly moves through the gantry.- The x-ray source rotates around the gantry (Circular machine).- After every full rotation a 2D slice image is formed, then the gantry moves slightly forward and it is repeated.- After it is done, all images are fitted together to create a 3D image of the brain.
106
Describe a PET scan
- Takes functional images of the brain- A radioactive tracer attached to glucose is injected into the person.- Needs to wait for the tracer to be absorbed.- Areas that are most used will absorb more glucose/tracer.- Person is on a bed in the PET scanner that slowly moves through it.- Positrons are emitted due to the breakdown of the tracer, these emit gamma rays that are detected by the scanner.- 3D image is created
107
Describe a fMRI scan
- Uses a powerful electro-magnet focussing on blood flow- Magnetic flow affects the magnetic nucleus of atoms and causes them to align in the same direction- Tiny magnetic signals add up to create a signal that can be detected- fMRI detects this blood flow and sees the more active areas, creating a functional image
108
Strengths of CAT scans
- Less harmful than PET scans- Can detect changes in structure (good for tumors/haemorrhages)- Not painful or invasive
109
Weaknesses of CAT scans
- fMRI gives clearer pictures| - Involves x-rays which can cause cancers
110
Strengths of PET scans
- Reasonably non-invasive - measures what it intends to- can be repeated
111
Weaknesses of PET scans
- Invasive due to injection- Difficult to isolate brain functions precisely as behaviours can use multiple areas- can be claustrophobic
112
Strengths of fMRI scans
- Non-invasive unlike PET- Virtually risk-free- Can detect small features/measurements of the brain - measured more accurately
113
Weaknesses of fMRI scans
- Can't determine causation as doesn't show the areas in the brain that are associated- Only shows a localised area's function not the overall communication- Too much head movement can distort the image
114
What do twin studies enable psychologists to determine?
If characteristics are down to nature, nurture or a mix of both.
115
What are Monozygotic twins?
100% genetically similar Identical
116
What are Dizygotic twins?
50% genetically similarNon-identical
117
What is the twin study?
Gottesman and Shields (1966)
118
What was the aim of Gottesman and Shields (1966)?
To find out if schizophrenia was genetic. To replicate other studies that had found a genetic link to schizophrenia.
119
Describe the sample of Gottesman and Shields (1966)
57 pairs of twins from 392 same sex twins that had been admitted to Bethlem and Maudsley Psychiatric Hospital24 monozygotic twin pairs33 dizygotic twin pairs27 pairs were female30 pairs were maleAge range 19 - 64
120
How many twin pairs are monozygotic or dizygotic? (Gottesman and Shields (1966)
24 monozygotic twin pairs33 dizygotic twin pairs
121
How many pairs of twins were there in Gottesman and Shields (1966)?
57 pairs of twins
122
How was data collected in Gottesman and Shields (1966)?
Hospital NotesCase Histories Interviews with patients and their parentsTape recordings from a semi-structured interview to look at verbal behaviourMMPI (personality test)An object sorting task looking at thought disorder
123
How were the patients concordance measured? (Gottesman and Shields (1966))
Grade 1 - if both twins had been diagnosed with schizophrenia Grade 2 - if both twins had been diagnosed with psychiatric disorders, but they were different diagnoses Grade 3 - if one twin had schizophrenia and the other had some psychiatric abnormality that may have been found by GP or during the testing
124
What was Grade 1? (Gottesman and Shields (1966))
Grade 1 - if both twins had been diagnosed with schizophrenia
125
What was Grade 2? (Gottesman and Shields (1966))
Grade 2 - if both twins had been diagnosed with psychiatric disorders, but they were different diagnoses
126
What was Grade 3? (Gottesman and Shields (1966))
Grade 3 - if one twin had schizophrenia and the other had some psychiatric abnormality that may have been found by GP or during the testing
127
What were the results of Gottesman and Shields (1966)?
Grade 1 - MZ 42%, DZ 9%Grade 2 - MZ 12%, DZ 9%Grade 3 - MZ 25%, DZ 27%Normal - MZ 21%, DZ 55%
128
What was the conclusion of Gottesman and Shields (1966)?
That schizophrenia was partially genetic, but not totally, as there was not a 100% concordance rate between MZ twinsThe environment also plays a part and can trigger SZ if there is a genetic predisposition
129
What was the aim of ludeke et al?
To test the Traditional Moral Values Triad (TMVT)To see if those who follow conventional authority have traditional attitudes towards the structure of the family, society and religion, as well as conventional attitudes on political issues
130
Describe the sample of Ludeke et al
Ppts were found on the register of Minnesota twins who were reared apart66 MZ twin pairs and 53 DZ twin pairsAll had been separated in infancy and reunited as adults63% were femaleMost were white, middle class
131
Describe the procedure of Ludeke et al
They all took part in 5 tests:-Right-wing authoritarianism test To measure how conventional, how authoritarian submissive and how authoritarian aggressive they were.-ConservatismWilson-Patterson conservatism scale including questions on abortion, capitalism and segregation-Religious FundamentalismWiggins religious Fundamentalist scale including questions on Christian beliefs-TraditionalismItems from the Multidimensional personality questionnaire were used-IntelligenceWechsler adult intelligence scale was used to assess verbal and performance aspects of intelligence
132
Describe the results of Ludeke et al
High correlations between all the scales with MZ twins, so they had similar scores across the pair. Whereas they was only a significant correlation in conservatism for the DZ twins.This suggests these traits are genetic.Conservatism and right-wing authoritarianism had a correlation of 0.7
133
Describe the conclusion of Ludeke et al
Right-wing authoritarianism, religiousness and conservatism were all part of a single trait, with genetic influences contributing 44% of the variance between ppts, and these genes also influenced TMVT (91% of the results)
134
Evaluate the generalisability of Ludeke et al
Large sample size - 238 ppts (66 MZ pairs and 53 DZ pairs)Ethnocentric - Mostly white, middle class and from MinnesotaAndrocentric - Mostly female (63%) but this was controlled for in the reults
135
Evaluate the reliability of Ludeke et al
Standardised procedure - same 5 tests were usedControls - Correlations were made for age, sex and intelligence when analysing the results
136
Evaluate the validity of Ludeke et al
Task validity - unnatural to answer these questions and do these testsSocial desirability - People may have not answered truthfully on the tests to seem more morally right as they were self report tests
137
What is the key question for biological psychology?
Are anti-depressants an effective use of NHS money?
