Biology Flashcards
(148 cards)
1
Q
Nucleotides
A
Four monomers that make up RNA and DNA
2
Q
Polymers
A
The result of monomers being linked together through polymerization
3
Q
Carbohydrates
A
Macromolecules that are a source of energy and structure for many organisms
4
Q
Lipid
A
Macromolecules used by the body to store energy & form membranes and barriers around cell
5
Q
Nucleic acid
A
Macromolecules made of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus
6
Q
Protein
A
Macromolecules responsible for controlling many cell processes and serving as an enzyme within chemical reactions
7
Q
Photosynthesis
A
The process of using light to make sugar from carbon dioxide and water
8
Q
Biopolymer
A
Natural polymer produced by living organisms
9
Q
Glycogen
A
Stores Energy I. The muscles and liver of humans and animals
10
Q
Starches
A
Soluble helical sugar structures produced by plants and used to store energy
11
Q
Cellulose
A
Dietary fiber; plants use it for rigid structures, particularly stems
12
Q
Complex lipids
A
Molecules that can be broken down into smaller constituents, usually long chains of carbons
13
Q
Simple lipids
A
Complex organic molecules that can’t be broken down easily (ex. Steroids)
14
Q
Triol
A
Carbon chain with three alcohol groups (-OH groups)
15
Q
Unsaturated fat
A
Long chain hydrocarbon with at least one double bond
16
Q
Phospholipids
A
Long chain hydrocarbon held together by a phosphate group
17
Q
Proteins size
A
Extremely large polypeptides with molecular masses between 5,000 and 40,000,000 g/mol
18
Q
Amino acid
A
A molecule that has an NH(2) group and a carboxylic group on a single carbon
19
Q
Polypeptides
A
Many amino acids bonded together by an amine bond
20
Q
Cellular theory
A
Defining principles that describe characteristics of cell
21
Q
Eukaryotic cells
A
Membrane bound nucleus, organelles, and multiple rod chromosomes
22
Q
Plasma membrane
A
Micro molecules made of fats and proteins form external boundary
23
Q
Organelle
A
Specialized cell structures with specific functions
24
Q
Nucleoid
A
Part of nucleus with prokaryotes containing most of the genetic material
25
Peptidoglycan
Made of sugars and proteins to form cell wall for many bacteria
26
Bacteria
One of the 6 kingdoms of life; prokaryotes only
27
Pilus
Hair like structures on surface of bacterial cells
28
Flagellum
Microscopic appendage that enables movement on bacteria
29
Capsule
Sugar layer part of bacterial cell membrane
30
Cytoplasm
Fills cell and holds all material in place
31
Nuclear envelope
Adds extra protection layer to nucleus
32
Nucleolus
Produces ribosomes
33
Ribosomes
Involved in DNA translation and protein production
34
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Works with ribosomes to produce proteins
35
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Manufactures lipids or fats; detox function
36
Golgi apparatus
Finishes production of early-stage proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum
37
Lysosomes
Filled with enzymes capable of breaking down proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and old organelles
38
Peroxisomes
Breaks down lipids and fats
39
Vacuoles
Place for animal cells to store molecules before they’re released from the cell and when brought into the cell
40
Amyloplasts
Plant cells only; store and synthesize starch
41
Cytosol
Jelly-like fluid that fills the cytoplasm
42
Nucleoplasm
Semi soft fluid that contains nucleolus sand chromatin
43
Cisternae
Sacs and tubules in endoplasmic reticulum
44
Lumen
Internal part of Cisternae
45
Cis
Receiving opening of Golgi apparatus
46
Trans
Where proteins leave the Golgi apparatus
47
Cristae
Folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
48
Mitochondrial matrix
Outer membrane surrounding mitochondria
49
Interphase
Mitosis; Cell isn’t dividing but May be growing and replicating DNA
50
Prophase
Mitosis; No nuclear envelope and prepares to divide by tightly condensing chromosomes, and the chromosomes pair up
51
Metaphase
Mitosis; Cell begins to elongate and chromosomes line up along the center of the cell
52
Anaphase
Mitosis; Cell Continues to elongate, chromosomes are pulled apart
53
Telophase
Mitosis; Cell develops a nuclear envelope and begins to pinch in the middle
54
Cytokinesis
Division of the cell’s cytoplasm to form two daughter cells
55
Meiosis 1
Halving number of chromosomes in parent cells
56
Meiosis 2
Generates 2 more haploid daughter cells from the duplicated sister chromatids present in meiosis 1
57
G1 checkpoint
Is cell capable of dividing? Size, DNA integrity, nutrient level, molecular signaling
58
G2 checkpoint
Ensures no DNA is damaged during interphase. Apoptosis will occur
59
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
60
M checkpoint (spindle)
If the spindle fibers are properly attached to the sister chromatids
61
Cyclins
Proteins with constantly changing concentrations, several types associated with different phases/checkpoints
62
Genetics
Study of heredity
63
Genes
Stretches of DNA specific for a characteristic ie. eye color
64
Alleles
Specific area of a gene that code for a specific characteristics trait ie. blue or brown etc
65
Gregor Mendel
Father of modern genetics; pea plants experiments
66
Hybridization
Crossing of two genetically different organisms to make a third organism
67
Genome
All genes of entire human being, mapped out in 90’s
68
Character
Feature inherited from individuals
69
Trait
A feature inherited that’s actually exhibited
70
Mendelian inheritance
Dictate how genetic information is passed from parents to offspring through generations
71
Breeding
Mating and production of offspring of living organisms such as plants and animals
72
True breeding
In plants, offspring have exhibited same traits over many generations
73
Cross breeding
Specific type in different species/varieties are mated with each other to produce hybrid
74
Pollination
Transfer of pollen from male to female part of plant
75
P generation
True bred parent plants
76
F1 Generation
1st generation of hybrid offspring, identifies dominant gene
77
F2 Generation
Starts to show effects of hybridization, mix of traits
78
Phenotype
Set of observable characteristics (dominant/recessive)
79
Genotype
Genetic composition
80
Homozygous
2 copies of the same allele
81
Heterozygous
Dominant and recessive gene
82
Law of segregation
Every organism acquires 2 alleles for each trait, 1 from each parent
83
Law of independent assortment
Seperation of alleles for a given gene occurs independently to that of any other gene
84
Law of dominance
Offspring inherits one gene encoding a version of a given characteristic from its father and other from its mother
85
Punnett square
Way to determine probabilities of offspring exhibiting certain characteristics
86
Incomplete dominance
One phenotype doesn’t prevail over the other, phenotypes are mixed ex red snapdragon + white = pink
87
Codominance
Both dominant and recessive traits express together ex. A blood + B blood = AB blood
88
Sickle cell anemia
Disease caused by genetic mutation in hemoglobin protein. Clump together causing a half moon shape
89
Chromosome theory of inheritance
Genetic material passed down is in chromosomes; Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri
90
3 components of nucleotide
Phosphate group, a sugar (oxy/deoxy), and a base (c,g,a,u/t)
91
Replication
The process by which DNA is copied to form dna for new cells
92
Mutation
DNA sequence with altered nucleotides
93
Gene expression
Tightly controlled process by which information stored in DNA is converted into instructions for making proteins
94
Central dogma
Framework of how to understand two-step process of gene expression (transcription and translation)
95
Transcription
Form a molecule called RNA, guanine, adenine, cytosine, uracil
96
Translation
Using transcribed RNA sequence to create proteins
97
Codon
3-letter DNA or RNA sequence that contains information
98
DNA
Chemical compound that resembles a long chain with links made of individual units called nucleotides
99
RNA
Made of nucleotides
100
RNA essential functions
Convert genetic code from DNA to proteins; regulate process of gene expression; facilitate biological reactions; senses and communicate response to cellular signals; exists as gen. Material found in some viruses
101
mRNA
Carries info from dna to the ribosome to enable protein synthesis
102
tRNA(transfer)
Gather appropriate amino acid from cytoplasm and deliver to ribosome and 3 letter code comes up
103
rRNA (ribosomal)
Interacts with set of proteins to form ribosomes
104
Cell proliferation
Process of growth and division of cells that produce many cells from original cells
105
Differentiation
Process cells undergo to develop features that enable them to fulfill specific roles
106
Direct contact
Cell interaction; cells next to each other, small channels between sallow small molecules to diffuse from one cell to another
107
Paracrine signaling
Cell interaction; produces a chemical signal by a cell and diffuses over a short distance to reach nearby cells.
108
Synaptic signaling
cells separated by gap and neurotransmitters diffuse to send message from one cell to another
109
Autocrine signaling
Cell signals to itself. Important in development but can play a role in cancer as well
110
Endocrine signaling
Signaling conducted by hormones
111
Cell movement
Important part of organismal development; wound healing and immune system responses; human brain development; cells divide and follow predetermined paths marked by extra cellular molecular gradients
112
Conservative model of replication
Two original strands of DNA pair up again after being used as a template to form an entirely new double helix DNA molecule
113
Semi conservative model
Parental cells separate into two strands, each a template to create complimentary strands
114
Dispersive model
Fragments of parent strand and new dna strand present in both copies
115
Enzymes
Proteins that can speed up reactions
116
Initiation (1st role of polymerase)
Location is targeted for unwinding; helicases break hydrogen bonds, other proteins prevent from joining again; topoisomerases surround unzipped dna strands and relax the helices
117
Termination (2nd step for polymerase)
RNA primers removed and replaced with DNA and ligase completes sugar-phosphate backbone. DNA is checked for mistakes during replication
118
Nonsense mutation
Single base pair that ends translation early
119
Frameshift mutation
Mutation inserts or deletes nucleotides from their sequence
120
Non disjunction
Sister chromatids fail to seperate during meiosis
121
Chromosome
Molecule of DNA contains part or all genetic material
122
Karyotype
Organized profile of an organisms chromosomes; number, size, relative shape, appearance
123
Euploid
Organism with appropriate number of chromosomes
124
Aneuploid
Organism with more or less appropriate number of chromosomes
125
Shotgun sequencing
Genomic sequencing method used to determine sequences of long dna strands by breaking into many small fragments
126
Lessons from Genome Project
HG contains 3billion nucleotide bases; 2% are protein-coding genes; much of HG is result of genetic code from viruses; 3 million locations
127
Selective breeding
Results in offspring with desired characteristics
128
Inbreeding
Individuals with similar characteristics continue to be bred to keep certain sets of traits
129
Transformationalism
Use or disuse of a body part resulting in heritable change
130
Uniformitarianism
Basic laws of physics and chemistry don’t change over time
131
Population
Same species living in common area; maintain by increasing death rate(positive) or decreasing birth rate (preventative)
132
Global difference in species
Species from one part of the world look different from another part; some species limited to one part
133
Local difference in species
Species vary across geographic area variations depending on ecological niche
134
Temporal difference in species
Species change over time differing among members; collected fossils demonstrate this
135
On the Origin of Species
1859; evolution occurs at level of population
136
Perpetual change
Living world in a constant stage of flux without a fixed state; supported by fossil record
137
Common descent
all life originated from a shared ancestor
138
Multiplication of species
New species evolve from existing species splitting and transforming. Adds spatial dimension
139
Gradualism
Small steady changes produce trait different over a long period of time
140
Natural Selection
Net forces favor new adaptations that give advantage; survival of the fittest
141
Ontogeny
Development of an individual over the course of its life
142
Phylogeny
How a species has evolved over time
143
Recapulation
Biogenetic law
144
End Ordovician extinction
444 MYA; 85% species lost inc. trilobites cords and brachiopods
145
End Devonian extinction
380-359 MYA ; 75% species lost trilobites corals and placoderms
146
End Permian extinction
252 MYA largest in history volcanic eruptions 90% lost marine invertebrates and large number of insects
147
End Triassic extinction
201 MYA; 80% loss many reptiles not dinos
148
End Cretaceous extinction
65.5 MYA; asteroid in Yucatan peninsula 75% loss included dinos
