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Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction?

A

asexual=> genetically identical cells, cell division=mitosis

sexual=> genetically different cells, fusion of sex cells= meiosis

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2
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

maintenance of internal environment of organism; maintenance of cell structure+arrangement, pH, body temperature

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3
Q

What is the use of deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning in the scientific method?

A

Deductive reasoning=> to test a hypothesis “If…then” statement
Inductive reasoning=> formulating a hypothesis, “educated guess” based on specific info, facts, observations

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4
Q

What is an experimental variable?
What is a dependent variable?
What is a controlled variable?

A

experimental=> changeable, differs in experimental group to control group
dependent=> expected to change
controlled=> stays the same in both groups (won’t be changed)

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5
Q

Determine the # of protons and neutrons given the atomic number and mass number of an atom.

A

atomic # (upper left corner) => protons
protons+neutrons=>inside the nucleus
(neutrons=neutral, no charge)
Atomic mass number= below symbol-> total number of protons + neutrons
- to figure out neutrons-> atomic mass # - atomic number (upper left corner) = neutrons

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6
Q

Determine whether an atom is inert or reactive based on its atomic number.

A

inert=full outer shell -> atom is happy, no reaction with other atoms
reactive=outer shell is not full yet-> atom is looking for electrons, reaction with other atoms

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7
Q

How do ionic and covalent bonds form?

A

ionic= oppositely charged ions attract each other (i.e. NaCl); charged atoms are called ions (Na+, Cl-)
ionic bond= transfer of electrons
covalent(carbon)=atoms share electrons, when reactive atoms(outer shel not filled) share atoms with other reactive atoms, each atom fills outer shell by sharing
covalent bond=sharing electrons

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8
Q

What is oxidation?

A

electrons/hydrogens are removed/lost from molecule, energy is released, bonds are broken,

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9
Q

Reduction?

A

electrons/hydrogens are gained from molecule, energy is required, bonds are formed

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10
Q

What are isotopes?

A

=atoms, have same # of protons but different # of neutrons (i.e. carbon can have 6 protons but 6,7,or 8 neutrons=>differs in neutrons->other carbons=isotopes)

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11
Q

What type of bond connects the hydrogens to the oxygen WITHIN one water molecule?

A

covalent bond=hydrogen+oxygen share electrons

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12
Q

What type of bond attracts one water molecule to another?

What means cohesive and adhesive?

A 
hydrogen bond (easily breakable apart=when water drops off the sink)
cohesive= attracted to other water molecules
adhesive=attracted to most other substances
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13
Q

What is a hydrogen bond? Is it strong or weak?

A

Hydrogen bond= constantly forming and breaking, therefore, it’s a WEAK bond

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14
Q

What are the relative H+ and OH- ion concentrations at neutral pH? Acid pH? Basic pH?

A

H+ => 10-7
OH- => 10-7
-> neutral pH
-> acidic= higher amount of H+, lesser amount of OH-
-> basic= higher amount of OH-, lesser amount of H+

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15
Q

Determine whether a molecule is organic from its molecular formula.

A

organic=> must contain C (carbon) and H (hydrogen)

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16
Q

What are the four major categories of organic molecules, and what elements does each contain?

A

Carbohydrates= C H O
Lipids = C H O
Proteins = C H O N S
Nucleic acids = C H O N P

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17
Q

Determine whether a molecule is hydrophobic or hydrophilic from its molecular formula.

A

hydrophobic(afraid of water, does not dissolve in water)= no charges b/c carbon+hydrogens form NON-polar covalent bond
hydrophillic(likes water, dissolves in water)= partial charges b/c oxygen forms polar covalent bond with carbon and hydrogens

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18
Q

What are monosaccharides and disaccharides also referred to?

A

Sugars

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19
Q

What are the functions of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?

A

dehydration synthesis= joins 2 monomers to a dimer (1H + 1OH are taken out) water is taken away->dehydrieren
hydrolysis= breaking down 1 dimer into 2 monomers(1H+1OH are added) water is added to molecule-> hydrieren

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20
Q

What are the major polysaccharides,their structure and characteristics. Which are indigestible to humans?

A

Starch=Polymer of Glucose, energy storage (plants)
Glycogen= Polymer of Glucose, energy storage (animals)
Cellulose=Polymer of Glucose, support (cell walls)
Chitin=Polymer of Glucose, support (skeleton, cell walls)

Cellulose + Chitin => NOT DIGESTIBLE in humans

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21
Q

What are the examples of lipids that were included in the study guide?

A

Fats, Oils, Waxes, Phospholipids, Steroids

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22
Q

What is the difference between solid fats and liquid oils in terms of being saturated or unsaturated?

Lipids consist out of GLYCEROL+3FATTY ACIDS
GLYCEROL has 3 carbon molecules (C) + 3 hydroxyl groups (OH)

A

saturated(more solid)=no double bonds in CARBON chain (straight chain, fatty acids packed together + solid)
unsaturated(less solid)= one double bond in HYDROCARBON chain-> monounsaturated, more double bonds in Hydrocarbon chain-> polyunsaturated (bend chains, fatty acids slide past each other, cannot pack tightly)

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23
Q

How can you recognize amino acids from their molecular structure?

A

amino acids=monomers of proteins; have 2 functional groups: amino group {NH2}, carboxyl {C(=O)OH}

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24
Q

Given a molecular structure, identify the molecule as a carbohydrate, amino acid, saturated fatty acid, or unsaturated fatty acid.

A

carbohydrate= C H O
Amino Acid= has groups {NH2} and {C(=O)OH} and a R group
saturated= no double bond in Carbon chain
unsaturated= double bond in hydrocarbon chain

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25
What are the monomers that compose polypeptides (proteins)?
amino acids
26
What are antigens? What are antibodies? _______ stimulate your body to produce ________.
antigens=foreign molecules entering the body antibodies= chemicals that the body makes to stop pathogens (Krankheitserreger) from infecting other cells. Antigens stimulate your body to produce antibodies.
27
Through what organs and in what order does food/waste pass as it moves from mouth to anus?
Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Duodenum (first section of small intestines), Small Intestines, Large Intestines, Rectum, Anus
28
What are the major functions of the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and liver?
Stomach=mixes hydrochloric acid, enzyme pepsin, and chewed food; food is liquefied (chyme) and digested Small Intestines= majority of digestion & absorption of nutrients(Capillaries absorb monosaccharides+amino acids into blood, lacteals absorb fatty acids+glycerol) Large Intestines= reclaim of water from digestive system + return of water to blood, production of vitamin K Liver= stores glycogen, breaks down hemoglobin to produce bile (stored in gall bladder), dominates amino acids if there is too much (removing amino functional group)
29
What is the function of the epiglottis?
flap that closes off entrance from pharynx to trachea when food is swallowed
30
As food passes down the digestive tract, where does the digestion of each of the following begin?Starch, protein, fats
``` Starch= digested in mouth Proteins= digested in stomach fats= digested in small intestines (pancreas produces enzymes amylase, lipase, trypsin to break down fats) ```
31
What are the five Kingdoms, their characteristics, and representative members?
Animalia ( multicelular,eukaryotic, ingestive, heterotroph) = Hawk, Butterfly, People, Hydra Plantea (multicelular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic, autotroph) Water Lily, Maple Tree, Day Lily, Horsetails, Corn Fungi (multicelular, eukaryotic, absorptive, heterotroph)= Mushrooms, Bread mold Protista (uniocelular, eukaryotic) = Euglena, Paramecium, Amoeba Monera (unicelular, prokaryotic) =Bacterium NO KINGDOM= Virus
32
Which are autotrophs, which are heterotrophs, and which include both autotrophs and heterotrophs?
``` autotroph= plantea heterotroph= animalia, fungi BOTH= Protista (Plantea, Animalia, and Fungi-like characteristics) -> Euglena, Paramecium, Amoeba ```
33
What are the major similarities and differences between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells?
``` similarities= both have DNA, plasma membrane, and ribosomes differences= eukaryotic has nuclear membrane around DNA (prokaryotic doesn't), membrane bound organelles (prokaryotic doesn't), and larger cell size (prokaryotic cell is smaller) ```
34
What are the major similarities and differences between eukaryotic plant cells and animal cells?
similarities = both go through mitosis differences = plant cell only goes through mitosis - cells are genetically identical, animal cell goes through meiosis and mitosis, cells are genetically different in animal cells, plant cells= cytokinesis - plant plate animal cell= cytokinesis-cleavage furrow
35
What is the general structure and function of the following cellular components? Ribosome, chloroplast, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosome
Ribosomes=small granules composed of RNA and protein, not membrane bound organelles, assist in production of proteins from amino acids Chloroplast=round, contains green pigment chlorophyll, carry out reactions of photosynthesis Mitochondrion=organelles->2 membranes, inner membrane folded into regions(cristae), allows oxidation of organic molecules, uses the energy to produce ATP endoplasmic reticulum=membraneous canals attached to nuclear envelope, transport and synthesis of molecules golgi apparatus (UPS)=flattened membrane sacs, processes+packages molecules in vesicles, to transport within cell or secrete them out of membrane lysosome= membraneous sacs produced by golgi apparatus, contain digestive enzymes to carry out hydrolysis reaction, help cell to digest large molecules or bacteria
36
What is the endosymbiotic theory, and what evidence supports the theory?
chloroplast+mitochondria were once independent prokaryotic cells, became engulfed by other cells, lived symbiotically inside host cell; after evolution bacteria became independent=> today's mitochondria+chloroplast
37
What do eukaryotic cells contain?
DNA in nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast (if plant cell)
38
Be able to describe the processes of endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis) and exocytosis.
endocytosis= ingestion of organic material into cell, material is surrounded by forming a vacuole, material=fluid (pinocytosis) material=solid (phagocytosis) {lysosome fuses with vacuole, providing enzymes to break down "food" molecules in vacuole} exocytosis=secreting organic material out of cell, vesicle/vacuole fuses with membrane secreting indigestible material from the cell
39
What is the structure of the plasma membrane?
composed of bilayer of phospholipids, embedded proteins (recognition, transport, receptor), cholesterol (if animal cell), glycerol=head fatty acids=tails
40
What are the major differences between active transport and facilitated transport?
facilitated transport= transport protein carries molecules from high concentration to less concentration -> energy is NOT required (with the flow) active transport= transport protein carries molecules from low concentration to high concentration -> energy IS required (against the flow)
41
Solve problems involving the diffusion of oxygen gas into or out of a cell.
diffusion= net movement of molecules from high to low concentration (outside cell -> high O2 concentration, inside cell high CO2 concentration => O2 diffuses to inside of cell; CO2 diffuses to outside of cell => to make it equal on both sides)
42
Solve problems involving the osmosis of water into or out of a cell.
osmosis=diffusion of water molecules across membrane - net flow of water from more water to less water (more water outside cell, less water inside cell->water flows inside cell to make it equal)
43
Be able to apply the terms isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic.
hypertonic (more pulling power) = water leaves cell -> cell shrinks hypotonic (less pulling power) = water comes in cell -> cell blows up isotonic (equal pulling power) = water level is SAME inside+outside of cell
44
What are the following: Metabolism? Anabolism? Catabolism?
``` Metabolism = biochemical reactions carried out by cell; includes build up reactions (anabolism) + break down reaction (catabolism); energy released by catabolism is used for anabolism Anabolism = build up reactions (energy is required) Catabolism = break down reactions (energy is released) ```
45
What are enzymes, and how do they work? What is the importance of the active site?
enzymes = proteins (composed of amino acids) that speed reactions by reducing energy of activation - > have a tertiary structure - > bind to specific substrate - > act as catalyst - lower the energy of activation (every enzyme has specific pH; increasing temperature increased rate of enzyme action - makes it work better; too high temperature breaks bonds of 3D shape->unfolds enzyme-> becomes inactive)
46
What is a substrate?
= molecule that enzymes acts on | substrate bonds to active site of enzyme(docking station)
47
What is the importance of ATP to cells?
ATP is form of chemical energy useful to cell. | Each cell needs to produce own ATP.
48
Which requires and which releases energy? ADP + P -> ATP ATP -> ADP + P
to make ATP (ADP+P) =requires energy | to make ADP (ATP-P) = releases energy
49
What color of light is the least well absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments?
green (reflected)
50
What are the reactants and products of the overall reaction of photosynthesis?
``` reactants= water+CO2+light energy products= Carbohydrates, O2 ```
51
What are the three accomplishments of photosynthesis on which humans (and all life) depend?
- release of O2 - conversion of CO2 into carbohydrates - conversion of light energy into ATP
52
What are the reactants and products of the light dependent and light independent reactions?
light dependent (in storms of chloroplast) reactants: light energy, H2O, ADP+P, NADP+ products: O2, ATP, NADPH light independent (in thylakoid membranes of chloroplast) reactants: CO2, ATP, NADPH products: Carbohydrates, ADP+P, NADP+
53
How does the chemiosmotic mechanism result in ATP synthesis in the chloroplast?
chemiosmosis = occurs ->chloroplast + mitochondrion mechanism->diffusion of hydrogen ions H+through protein membrane ->ATP synthase, activates reaction ADP+P->ATP - chemiosmosis involves diffusion of hydrogen ions through a membrane; force of diffusion provides energy to drive reaction ADP+P to make ATP - enzyme "ATP synthase" = membrane protein which hydrogen ions diffuse through
54
What is the purpose of cellular respiration to the cell?
to convert energy in form of carbohydrates to energy in form of ATP nutrients (carbohydrates) -> converted to ATP (useful energy for cell)
55
What occurs in glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport, and where do they occur?
``` Glycolysis (in cytosol of cell )= chemical breakdown(catabolism) of glucose molecule into 2 molecules of pyruvate Krebs cycle(in matrix of mitochondrion )= chemical pathway; uses acetyl CoA as input -> 2CoA=2 ATP,6 NADH, 2 FADH2 electron transport( inner membrane of mitochondrion)= pumps hydrogen ions into cristae to enable chemiosmosis to occur ```
56
What is fermentation, and how does it differ in animal cells and yeast cells?
ATP formation pathwa, doesn't require O2 to work; utilized energy from organic molecules (i.e. glucose)
57
Beginning with one molecule of glucose, what is the net ATP yield from aerobic respiration?
38 ATP
58
Beginning with one molecule of glucose, what is the net ATP yield from fermentation?
2 ATP
59
What are the key events in the stages of the cell cycle? | Interphase G1, S, G2, and Mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
G1= period of growth, metabolism, reproduction of organelles in preparation for cell division/mitosis S= synthesis/replication of DNA (only if cell is dividing) G2= great deal of protein synthesis/production prophase= chromatid condenses and coils, nucleus breaks down metaphase= chromosomes line up in center of cell(attached to spindle fibers) anaphase= chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of cell by spindle fibers telophase= Human nerve+muscle cells remain in G1 phase of interphase.
60
What are sister chromatids, and are they genetically identical or different?
sister chromatids=identical parts of chromatid, connected by centromere, both have regions called kinetochores, attach to spindle fibers sister chromatids = genetically identical
61
Compare and contrast identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.
monozygotic (identical) twins= genetically identical(1 egg fertilized by 1 sperm, first cell division messed up) dizygotic (fraternal) twins= genetically different (2 eggs fertilized by 2 sperms)
62
Be able to answer detailed questions regarding the human life cycle and related terminology.
yeah yeah yeah ;-P
63
What are the major differences between mitosis and meiosis in terms of mechanism and outcome?
mitosis meiosis cells produced: 2 4 homologous chrom. synapsis: no yes resulting cells: diploid haploid outcome of cells: genet. identical genet. different
64
How many possible genetically different gametes (eggs or sperm) could be produced by one person?
male/sperm= n^23 -> n=number of sperm gametes female/eggs=pre-determined by how many eggs the female has available-> determined at birth -> n^23 n= number of eggs available in female
65
Recognize diagrams of the stages of mitosis and meiosis.
mitosis= interphase (G1, S G2), prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis meiosis=2 cell divisions meiosis/cell div.1 (start with 1 cell, result 2 cells)= prophase1, metaphase1, anaphase1, telophase1+cytokinesis meiosis/cell div.2 (start with 2 cells, result 4 cells)= prophase2, metaphase2, anaphase2, telophase2,
66
In meiosis, during what phases are the homologous chromosomes in pairs?
metaphase 1 | prophase 1=synapsis+crossing over within sister chromatids
67
Compare and contrast the outcomes of oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
spermatogenesis=(meiosis, haploid sperm) | oogenesis= (meiosis, haploid egg/ovum)
68
What is non-disjunction, and what type of abnormality can it cause?
non-disjunction= abnormality of meiosis in egg/sperm formation abnormalities: - trisomy (3 copies of the same chromosome instead of 2), - monosomy (1 copy of chromosome instead of normal 2), sex chromosome monosomy (XO) - autosomal (abnormality of when regular chromosome is affected, not sex chromosome X or Y - 23rd pair), - autosomal monosomy (lethal during development-> fetuses spontaneously abort) - autosomal trisomies (21,18,13), sex-chromosome trisomies (XXY, XXX, XYY)
69
Be able to answer questions about genes, alleles, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, and phenotype.
genes= DNA segments, contain blueprint for production of polypeptide alleles= variations of SAME gene homozygous= h2 of SAME alleles for gene (AA,aa) dominant (AA), recessive (aa) heterozygous= 2 different alleles for gene (Aa) genotype= specific genetic makeup of an individual, expressed in allele symbols (Aa, AA, aa) phenotype=physical makeup of individual
70
Be able to solve genetics problems involving recessive or dominant traits.
recessive= a dominant=A if recessive- can skip a generation, if dominant= in every generation
71
Describe the disorders PKU, cystic fibrosis and Huntington Disease in terms of cause and symptoms.
PKU=genetic disorder-recessive trait (lack of enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, detected at birth) cystic fibrosis=genetic disorder, extremely thick mucus due to lack of chloride ion transport-recessive allele/gene Huntington's disease= genetic disorder of brain-dominant allele/gene
72
Be able to solve genetics problems involving: | Incomplete dominance, codominance (A, B, AB, O blood types) and X-linkage.
incomplete dominance= neither allele is dominant (i.e. snapdragon plant; allele red R1R1 + allele white R2R2= R1R2 allele pink) codominance=both alleles are fully expressed (i.e. blood type; allele A + allele B= blood type AB)
73
What can traits be influenced by?
- genes | - environment (nutrition, undernourishment-not reaching inherited height)
74
When was DNA (first called nuclein) first discovered?
1869, by swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher
75
Was the tetranucleotide hypothesis correct or incorrect?
incorrect until 1940s, b/c protein was assumed to be genetic material, not DNA
76
What molecule IS the hereditary molecule?
DNA
77
What major contribution did Rosalind Franklin make to the discovery of the structure of DNA?
She used x-ray diffraction, helped to clarifying that DNA was a helix shape, width is consistently 2nm, distance between subunits of DNA is 0.34nm
78
What two scientists employed model building as a method to determine the structure of DNA?
James Watson, Francis Crick -> built molecular model of DNA helix
79
What is the basic arrangement of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate and base) in DNA?
nucleotides=building blocks of DNA A=T G=C
80
What are the major steps in DNA replication?
1. ) hydrogen bonds between paired bases (A=T. G=C) break 2. ) free nucleotides match up with nucleotides in DNA strand ("A" goes with T, "G" goes with C, "T" goes with A, "C" goes with G) 3. ) result=2 identical DNA strands/molecules enzyme DNA polymerase -> responsible for DNA replication
81
What is RFLP analysis, and how is it used in DNA fingerprinting?
variations in length of DNA fragments when cut with restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) restriction endonucleases=enzymes to CUT DNA at specific sequences; naturally produced by bacteria
82
What are transcription and translation?
transcription=process by which mRNA is produced, using DNA as pattern translation= process by which mRNA serves as blueprint/code for production of polypeptide (tRNA and ribosomes are necessary for translation to occur)
83
What is the function of mRNA? tRNA? Codons? Anticodons? Ribosomes?
mRNA (messenger) = used in process of transcription, allows DNA message in nucleus to be carried out into cytoplasm (then translated into a polypeptide) tRNA (transfer) = decodes mRNA codons by transferring particular amino acids (little round balls hovering over RNA), contains a 3 base sequence called anticodon that pairs with codon on mRNA (carries a particular amino acid) ``` Codons= three nitrogen bases on mRNA that code for a particular amino acid anticodons= three nitrogen bases on a tRNA, pairs with a codon on the mRNA ``` codons start= (AUG) codon which first tRNA bonds in process of translation codons stop= (UAG, UGA, UAA) codon which no tRNA bonds, signifies the end of translation of polypeptide ribosomes= tiny structures, composed of protein+RNA; bind to mRNA+coordinate process of translation; ribosomes are composed of a small and large subunit which bind together during process of translation
84
What is the use of restriction endonucleases and ligase in genetic engineering?
restriction endonucleases= scissors in genetic engineering accomplishment ligase= paste/glue (Kleister) in genetic engineering accomplishment
85
What are uses of bacterial genetic engineering?
Human insulin Human growth hormone Vaccines enzymes used as cleaning agents
86
Plant genetic engineering?
- for tomatoes not to get mushy, insect resistant plants, flower color, improved nutritional value, etc.
87
Animal genetic engineering?
- modifying animals to have desirable traits - > disease resistance - > greater milk yields in cows - > more nutritional value - > cows that produce pharmaceutical proteins in their milk - > mice that are models for human genetic disorders for research - involves introducing new genes into an organism (i. e. inserting gene for human insulin into bacteria, so that bacteria will produce human insulin for pharmaceutical purposes) -> NOT CLONING b/c doesn't involve altering of genetic material
88
What is human gene therapy?
to correct genetic abnormality abnormality->could result in serious disease by altering cells of body (to correct sickle cell anemia by genetically altering bone marrow cells which produce red blood cells)

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