what is frameshift mutations
insertions or deletions that mess up the entire protein code.
what is point mutations
changes in a single nucleotide (one “letter”) in a DNA sequence.
Substitution – One base is swapped for another (e.g., A → G).
Silent: No change in the protein.
Missense: Changes one amino acid in the protein.
Nonsense: Creates a stop signal, ending the protein early.
Charles Darwin contribution to the theory of evolution
he propsed the theory of evolution by natural selection
how did lamarck and darwin help each other?
Lamarck’s theory was correct, but his mechanism wasnt (aquired inheritance). darwin built on his theory with a more accurate meechanism (natural selection).
what is a pedigree chart?
A pedigree is a genetic family tree that shows how prevalent a trait is in a family unit from generation to generation, often used to track genetic conditions and disorders.
what is a phenotype vs. genotype?
Genotype = code
Phenotype = outcome
What is the difference between heterozygous and homozygous?
Homozygous = same alleles (AA or aa)
Heterozygous = different alleles (Aa)
How to tell if its x-linked or autosomoal?
more males have it than females, and the males only pass it on to their daughters, it skips generations. Autosomal effects them equally, usually more straightforward inheritance pattern.
How to tell if its recessive or dominant?
dominant traits appear in every generation, and affected individuals have one affected parent. recessive traits skip generations parents can be unaffected and still have affected children.
what is the difference between codominant and incomplete dominance?
codominance: white and black spots, has superscript
incomplete dominance: grey, has 2 capital letter.
What is a PCR test?
Polymerase Chain Reaction. Used to detect viruses in genetic material by making millions of copies of it.
What are the steps for PCR
- Denaturation
The sample is heated to around 95°C to separate the two strands of DNA. - Annealing
The temperature is lowered so primers (short bits of DNA) can attach to specific target sequences. - Extension
A special enzyme called Taq polymerase adds nucleotides to build new DNA strands, making copies of the target DNA.
What are the ethical concerns for PCR?
privacy, consent, discrimination after getting results, testing without consent.
