Biology 2 - Organisation Flashcards
(135 cards)
1
Q
Define Tissue
A
It is a group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function. An example is muscular tissue
2
Q
Define organ
A
It is a group of tissues that work together to perform a certain function. An example is the heart
3
Q
Define Organ system
A
A group of organs working together to perform a particular function. An example is the digestive system
4
Q
State the cell organization of large multicellular organisms
A
Cell, Tissue, Organ to Organ System
5
Q
Define a catalyst
A
It is a substance which increases the speed of reaction, without being changed or used up in the reaction.
6
Q
What are Enzymes made up of?
A
Large proteins
7
Q
What are proteins made of?
A
Chains of amino acids
8
Q
What does every Enzymes have?
A
An active site
9
Q
What does an active site fit onto?
A
The substance that is involved with.
10
Q
Why does the enzyme have a specific shape?
A
They only catalyze one specific function
11
Q
Describe the Lock and Key Method.
A
Every enzyme has a specific shape, and it can only catalyze one specific shape. The active site cannot change shape.
12
Q
If the active site changes shape what method is it called?
A
Induced Fit Method
13
Q
What do enzymes act as?
A
Biological Catalysts
14
Q
How does changing the temperature changes the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed Reaction?
A
A higher temperature increases the rate.
15
Q
What happens when the temperature is too high at the optimum temperature?
A
When it’s too hot the bonds which hold the enzymes together break. As a result, this changes the shape of the active site so the substrate won’t fit anymore. the enzyme is said to be denatured.
16
Q
How does pH affect the enzyme-catalyzed reaction
A
It interferes with the bonds holding the enzymes together.This changes the shape of the active site and denatures the enzyme.
17
Q
What are the 2 that affect enzymes in an enzyme-catalysed reaction?
A
- Temperature
- pH
18
Q
What is the optimum pH of pepsin in the stomach
A
2 - acidic conditions
19
Q
How do you investigate the effect of the pH of enzyme activities?
A
- Put a drop of iodine solution in to every well of a spotting tile
- place a bunsenburner on a heat-proof mat and a tripod and gauze over the bunsenburner. Put a beaker of water on top of the tripod and heat the water until it reaches 35 degree and use a thermometer to measure its temperature.
3.use a syringe to add 1 cm^3 of a amylase solution and add the 1 cm^3 of a buffer solution with a pH of 5 to a boiling tube. Using a test tube holder out the tube into the beaker of water and wait for 5 minutes. - Use a different syringe to add 5cm^3 of starch solution to the boiling tube.
- Mix the contents and start a stop clock immediately
- Use continuous sampling to record how long it takes for the Amylase to break down all the starch.
- repeat the experiment with buffer solution of different pH values to see how pH effects the time taken for the starch to break down.
20
Q
What are the control variables in the experiment
A
Concentration and volume of amylase solution
21
Q
What are the dependent variables of this reaction?
A
Time.
22
Q
How to calculate the rate of reaction?
A
the formula, rate = 1000/time
The unit is s^-1
23
Q
The formula of calculating the rate of reaction.
A
change/time
Change is the amount of product formed
units is cm^3 s^-1 or cm^3/s
24
Q
What type of molecules are starch proteins and fats?
A
Big
25
What type of molecules can easily pass through the walls of the digestive system, Allowing them to be absorb into the bloodstream?
Smaller soluble molecules
26
Carbohydrase converts what into simple sugars
Carbohydrates
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What is an example of a carbohydrase and what does it break down?
Amylase and it breaks down starch
28
Where is amylase made? (3)
1. Salivary Glands
2. The Pancreas
3. The small intestines
29
Protease converts what into amino acids.
Proteins
30
Where are proteases made? (3)
1. The Stomach
2. The Pancreas
3. The Small Intestines
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Lipases convert what into glycerol and fatty acids
1. The Pancreas
2. The Small Intestines
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Where are lipases made?
1. The Pancreas
2. The Small Intestines
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What is an example of simple sugars?
Maltose
34
Bile is produced where?
Liver
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Where is Bile stored in?
gall bladder
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Where is Bile released?
the small intestine
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What is the function of Bile
Emulsifies fats - breaks the fat into tiny droplet. this gives a bigger surface area of fats for the enzymes and lipids to work on. as the result, it makes the digestion faster.
38
What happens in the rectum?
where the faeces are stored before they are released into the anus
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What happens in the large intestines?
Where excess water is absorbed from the food
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What happens in the liver?
Where bile is produced. Bile neutralizes stomach acid and emulsifies fats.
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What happens in the stomach?
It produces hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria and give the right pH for the protease enzyme (pepsin) to work.
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Learn the different parts of the digestive system and be able to identify them on a picture
43
Learn the formula of the rate of reaction of enzymes
44
Learn the different parts of enzymes
45
What test is used to test for sugars?
Benedict's test
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What test is used to test for starch?
Iodine solution
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What test is used to test for proteins?
Biuret Test
48
What test is used to test for lipids?
Sudan III Test
49
What are the positive results of Benedict's test?
Normal blue into green, yellow, brick red - depends on how much sugar is in the food.
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What is the positive result of the iodine solution?
black to blue-black
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What is the positive result of the Biuret test?
Blue to purple
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What is the positive result of the Sudan III test?
There will be 2 layers. The top layer would be bright red. If no lipids are present, no separate red layer would be formed at the top.
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What are the lungs surrounded by
Pleural Membrane
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Where can you find the lungs
Thorax
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The flow of air process
Trachea --> bronchi --> Bronchioles --> alveoli
Splits into 2 tubes called bronchi
Smaller tubes is called bronchioles
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What are the lungs protected by?
Rib Cages
57
Be able to state and identify the different parts of the lungs
58
How to calculate the breathing rate in breaths per minute
breaths per minute = number of breaths/number of minutes
59
The Process of Gas Exchange in Alveoli
1. blood passes through the alveoli that has just returned to the lungs from the rest of the body so it can contain lots of CO2 and very little O2
2.Oxygen diffuses ou tof the alveolus (high concentration) into the blood (low concentration)
3. CO2 diffuses out of the blood (high concentration) into the alveolus (low concentration) to be breathed out
4.When blood reaches the body cell, oxygen is released from red blood cells (where their is high concentration) and diffuses to the body cells (where their concentration is low).
5. At the same time, CO2 diffuses out of the body cells (high concentration) to the blood (low concentration)
6. then carried back to the lungs
60
What is the circulatory system made up of?
1. Heart
2.blood
3. blood vessel
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What type of circulatory system does the human body have?
double circulatory system
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What are the wall's of the heart mostly made up of?
Muscle tissues
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What does the heart have to make sure that blood flows in the right direction by preventing it flowing backward?
Valles
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Name the 4 chambers of the heart which pump blood around.
1. right atrium
2. left atrium
3. right ventricle
4. left ventricle
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Learn how to identify the different parts of the heart
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Heart contraction process
1. Blood flows into the vena cava and pulmonary vein
2. Atria contract, pushing the blood into the ventricles
3. Ventricles contracts, forcing the blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta and out of the heart
4. Blood flows to the organs through the arteries and returns through the veins
5. Atria fills again and the whole cycle starts over
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What does the right ventricle pump?
deoxygenated blood to the lung to take in oxygen. The blood returns to the heart.
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What does the left ventricle pump?
Pumps oxygenated blood around all the organs of the body. The blood gives oxygen at the body cells and the deoxygenated blood returns to the heart to be pumped out of the lungs again.
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What is the resting heart rate controlled by?
Pacemaker, a group of cells in the right atrium walls
70
What does a pacemaker produce?
an electric impulse which spread to the surrounding muscle cells causing them to contract
71
What is used to control a heartbeat if the natural pacemaker cells don't work properly - irregular heartbeat?
Artificial pacemakers, it produce an electric current to keep the heart beating properly
72
What are the three types of blood vessels?
1. Arteries
2. Veins
3. Capillaries
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What is the function of an artery?
To pump blood out at high pressure
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What is the function of a capillary
to carry blood to every cell in the body, to exchange substance
75
The function of veins?
To take blood back to the heart
76
Describe Arteries
These carry the blood away from the heart.
77
Describe Capolliaris?
These are involved in the exchange of materials a the tissues.
78
Describe Veins?
These carry to the heart
79
How does Arteries carry blood under pressure?
1. the heart pumps blood out in high pressure so the artery walls are strong and elastic.
2. the walls are thick compared to the size of the hole down the middle.
3. They contain thick layer of muscles to make them strong, and elastic fibres to allow them to strench and spring back.
80
How do veins take blood back to the heart?
1. Capillair eventually join up to form vein. the blood is at lower pressure in the veins so the walls don't need be as thick as a artery walls
2.they have bigger lumen than artiery to help it flow despite the lower pressure
3.They also have valves to help keep the blood flowing in the right direction
81
how to calculate the rate of blood flow?
rate of blood flow = volume of blood/number of minutes
82
What are the 4 main things in blood?
1. Red blood cell
2. White blood cell
3. Platelets
4. Plasma
83
What are red blood cells main function?
1. the job of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body
84
What is the shape of the red blood cells?
biconcave disc - gives a large surface for absorb oxygen
85
Why does red blood cell not have nucleus?
allow more rooms to carry more oxygen
86
what is the red pigment in the red blood cells?
haemoglobin
87
what happens in the lungs in terms of red blood cells?
haemoglobin binds to oxygen to become oxyhaemoglobin
88
What happens in body tissue in terms of red blood cells
oxyhaemoglobin splits in to haemoglobin and oxygen to release oxygen to the cells
89
What is the function of a white blood cell?
To defend against infections.
90
Do white blood cells have a nucleus?
Yes
91
Examples of white blood cells
1. Phagocytosis
2. Produce antibodies to fight microorganisms as well as antitoxins produced by the microorganisms
92
what is the function of platelets?
to help blood clot at a wound, this is to stop all the blood pouring and to stop microorganism from getting in.
93
do platelets have a nucleus?
No, because their a small fractures of a cell
94
what can a lack of platelets cause?
Cause excessive bleeding and bruising
95
what is the function of plasma is?
it carries substances out of the blood
96
What is carried in plasma?
1. WBC
2. RBC
3. CO2
4.Urea
5. Hormones
6. Protiens
7.anti-bodies and anti-toxins
97
What are statins?
they are drugs that can reduce the amount of cholesterol present bloodstream. This slows down the rate of fatty deposits forming.
98
What are the advantages of statins?
1. by reducing the amount of 'bad' cholesterol in the blood , statins can reduce the risk of strokes, coronary heart diseases and heart attacks
2. as well as reducing the amount of 'bad' cholesterol, statins can increase the amount of a beneficial type of cholesterol (known as 'good' or HDL cholesterol) in your blood stream. this type can remove 'bad' cholesterol from the blood.
3. Some studies suggest that statins may also help prevent some other diseases
99
What are the disadvantages of statins?
1. Statins are a long-term drug, that must be taken regularly. there's risk that someone could forget to take them.
2. Statins can sometimes cause negative side effects, e.g. headaches. Some of these side effects can be serious, e.g. kidney failure, liver damage and memory loss.
3. the effect of statins isn't instant. It takes time for their effects to kick in.
100
What is coronary heart disease?
It is when the coronary arteries that supply blood to the muscle of the heart get blocked by layers of fatty material buildup.
101
What does coronary heart disease cause the arteries to become and why does it result in a heart attack?
It is when the coronary arteries that supply blood to the muscle of the heart get blocked by layers of fatty material buildup. This, in short, causes it to become narrowed and limit the supply, leading to the inevitable heart attack. This can also be worsened by a lack of oxygen.
102
What are stents?
Stents are a way to lower the risk of a heart attack in people with coronary heart disease.
103
Advantages of stents
They are effective for long time use and the recovery time is quite fast.
104
Disadvantages of stents
There is a high risk of complications during the operation, a chance of infection, and also a chance of developing a blood clot near the stent, which is called thrombosis.
105
If a patient has heart failure, what may the doctors perform on them?
they give a heart transplant.
106
What happens if the donor organ is not readily available
they will use an artificial heart
107
What are artificial hearts
it is a mechanical device taht pumps blood for a person whose own heart has failed.
108
Are artificial hearts temporary or permanent
In general it is a temporary fix - some cases used as a permanent swap.
109
What is the main advantage of artificial hearts?
less likely to be rejected from the body.
110
What is the disadvantage of an artificial heart?
leads to bleeding and in so a chance for infection.
111
How can a valve in the heart be damaged or weakened?
1.heart attack
2. infection
3. old age
112
What can the damage cause the valve tissue to do?
it can stiffen so it won't be as effective.
113
How can severe valve damage be treated by?
replacing it
114
A disadvantage/ of replacing a valve?
it can only be from mammals or mechanical valves (which are man-made).
115
What is an artificial blood?
it is a blood substitute, it used to replace temporarily.
116
If artifical blood fails, what will the patient need?
blood transfusion
117
Define Health
it is the state of physical, mental well being.
118
Define communicable disease.
it is when it is easily spead between people to people or people to animal.
119
Define noncommunicable disease
it can not spread to people to people nor animal to people.
120
What is a pathogen?
microorganism that can cause a disease when it infects its host
121
What are the factors that could affect your health?
1. stress
2.life situation
3.poor health
4.mental health (depression)
5. infection
6.type of cancer
122
Example of communicable disease and what are they described as?
1. virus
2. bacteria
3. fungi
4. parasite
123
What are risk factors, and how does it increase your chances of getting a Disease?
1.Risk factors are things that are linked to an increased in the likelihood that a person will develop a certain disease during their lifetime.
2.Risk factor are often aspect of a person life, they can also be in the present of a certain substance in the environment.
3. Mnay non-communicable diseases are causes by many serval different risk factors interacting with each other rather then one factor alone.
4. Lifestyle factors can have different impacts locally,nationally, and globally.
124
How can some risk factor can cause a diesease directly?
1. Smoking has been proven to directly cause cardiovascular diseases, lung diseases and lung cancer. It damages the walls of arteries and the cells in the lining of the lungs.
2. It's thought that obesity can cause Type 2 diabetes by making the body less sensitive or resistant to insulin, meaning that it struggles to control the concentration of glucose in the blood
3. Drining too much alcohol has been shown to cause liver disease. Too much alcohol can affect brain functions too. It can damage the nerve cells in the brain, causing the brain to lose volume
4. Cancer can be directly caused by exposure to certain substance or radiation. things that cause cancer are known as carcinogens. lonising radiation is an example of a carcinogen
125
Define Benign?
This is where the tumour grows until there's no more room. The tumour stays in one place (usually within a membrane) rather than invading other tissues in the body. This type isn't normally dangerous, and the tumour isn't cancerous.
126
Define Malignant?
Thus us where the tumour grows and spreads to neighbouring healthy tissues cells can break off and spread to other parts of the body by travelling in the bloodstream. The malignant cells then invade healthy tissues elsewhere in the body and form secondary tumours. Malignant tumours are dangerous and can be fatal - they are cancerous
127
How can risk factors effect the chance of some cancer?
Anyone can develop cancer. Having a risk factor doesn't mean that you'll definitely get cancer. It just means that you're at an increase risk of developing it. Ccancer survival rates have increased due to medical advances such as improved treatment, being able to diagnose cancer earlier and increase screening for it.
128
What factors are connected to life style?
1. UV exoisure: People who aren't often exposed to UV radiation from the sun have an increase chance skin cancer,
2. Viral infection: Infection with some viruses has been shown to increase the chance of developing a certain type of cancer. For example, infection with hepattitis B and Hepatitis C viruses have a increase risk in developing liver cancer. The likelihood of becoming infected with these viruses sometimes depends on lifestyle - e.g. they can be spread between people through unprotected sex or sharing needles.
129
Example of plant tissues
1. Epidermal tissue: This covers the whole plant
2. Palisade mesophyll tissue: this is the part of the leaf where most photosynthesis happens
3. spongy mesophyll tissues: this is also in the leaf, and it contains big air spaces to allow gases to diffuse in and out of the cell
4. Xylem & Phloem: They transport things like water, mineral ions and food around the plant
5. Meristem tissue: This is found at the growing tips of shoots and roots and is able to differentiate into lots of different type of plant cell, allowing the plant to grow.
130
what are the leaf organ tissues?
1. the epidermal tissue are covered with a waxy cuticle, which helps to reduce water loss by evaporation.
2. the upper epidermal tissues is transparent so that light can pass through it to the palisade layer
3. the palisade layer has lots of chloroplast, this means that they're near the top of the leaf where they can get the most light
4. the xylem & Phloem form a network of vascular bundles, which deliver water and other nutrients to the entire leaf and take away the glucose produce by photosynthesis
5. The tissues of the leaves are also adapted for efficient gas exchange. For example, the low epidermis is full of little holes called stomata, which let CO2 diffuse directly into the leaf. Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata in response to environmental conditions. The air spaces in the spongy mesophyll tissues increase the rate of gas diffusion.
131
how does the phloem tubes transports food?
1. made of columes of elongated living cells with small pores in the end walls to allow cell sap to flow through.
2. they transport food substances made in the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use in the area growing regions or for storage
3. the transport foes in both directions
4. thus process is called trabslocation
132
How does Xylem tubes take water up?
1. made of dead cells joinde together end to end with no end walls between them and a hole down the middle. thy're strengthened with a material called lignin.
2. they carry water and mineral ions from the roots to the stem and leaves.
3. the movement of water from the roots , through the xylem and out of the leaves us called the transpiration stream
133
How does the transpiration loss of water from the plant?
1. transpiration is caused by evaporation and diffusion of water from a plant 's surface most transpiration happen in the leaves.
2. this evaporation creates a slight shortage of water in the leafs, and so more water is drawn up from the toots of the plants through the xylem vessels to replace it.
3. this in turn means more water is drawn up from the roots and so there's a constant transpiration stream of water through the plant
134
what are the 4 things that transpiration rates are effected?
1. light intensity, the brighter the light the greater the transpiration rate. stomata begins to close as it gets darker, photosynthesis can't happen in the dark so they dib't need to be open
2. tempture. the water it is the faster the transipration happens. when its warm the water particles have more energy to to evaporate and diffuses out of the stomata
3. air flow. the better the air flow around the leaf (strong winds) the greater the transpiration rate. if air flow around the leaf is pour the water particles out side the leaf doesn't move away. high concentration means better transportation
4. humidity, the drier the airaround the leaf the faster the transpiration occurs.
this is like what happens in air airflow but the only difference is how dry the wind is.
135
How are guard cells adapted to close and open the stomata?
1. they have kidney shaped which opens and closes thestomata in the a leaf.
2. When a plant has lots of water, the guard cell fills with it and becomes plump and turgid. This causes the stomata to open and close.
3. When the plant is short on water, the guard cell loses water and becomes flaccid, closing the stomata. This helps to prevent water loss.
4. thin walls and thick inner wall make the opening close and open
5. as it's sensitive to light, so it closes it and opens it with photosynthesis
6. you will find more stomata on the undersides of the leaf then on the top. the lower surface is shaded and cooler so less water is lost through the stomata than if they were on the upper face
7. guard cells are therefore adapted to gas exchange and water control in the leaf
