Biology Chapter 3 Flashcards
(127 cards)
1
Q
What is a hierarchy?
A
An organizational structure, with more complex or important things at the top and simpler or less important things below it
2
Q
What is the order of the levels and their meaning?
A
Cellular Level: the simplest level of organization (EX: Muscle cell)
Tissue Level: A collection of similar cells that perform a particular, but limited function (EX: Muscle tissue)
Organ Level: A structure composed of different tissues working together to perform a complex body function (EX: Heart organ)
Organ System Level: A system of one or more organs and structure that work together to perform a major vital body function (EX: Circulatory System)
Organism Level: A system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major vital body function (EX: Deer organism)
3
Q
Why are organ systems more complex than those of specialized cells?
A
Organ systems are more complex as they coordinate the interaction of multiple of organs to execute an important function for the body. Organ systems can include different organs, tissues, cells, and specialized cells.
4
Q
What are the main functions of living things and the systems involved?
A
Breathing (respiratory)
Eating/digesting (digestive)
Eliminating waste (digestive and urinary)
Reproduction (reproductive)
Transporting things throughout the body (circulatory)
Responding to the environment: (nervous and musculoskeletal)
5
Q
Why isn’t there a hierarchy organization of single-celled organisms?
A
Single-celled organisms have only one cell. Hence, cells cannot be specialized in a certain task
6
Q
What are the four major types of tissue that animals have?
A
Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Nerve Tissue
7
Q
What is epithelial tissue?
A
Ex. skin, lining of the digestive system
Description: Thin sheets of tightly packed cells covering surfaces and lining internal organs
Function: protection from dehydration, low-friction surfaces
8
Q
What is connective tissue?
A
- various types of cells and fibres held together by a liquid, a solid, or a gel, known as a matrix
- It supports, protects, and gives structure to other organs in the body
- you can find this tissue anywhere in the body
9
Q
What is muscle tissue?
A
- bundles of long cell called muscle fibres that contain specialized proteins capable of shortening or contracting
- important for movement
- can be found in any muscles, such as the heart
10
Q
What is nerve tissue?
A
- long, thin cells with fine branches at the ends, capable of conducting electrical impulses
- allows for sensory information, communication within the body, and coordination of body functions.
- found throughout the body, but especially in the brain
11
Q
What is the definition of tissue?
A
A collection of similar cells that perform a particular but limited function
12
Q
What is the definition of an organ?
A
A structure composed of different tissues working together to perform a complex body function
13
Q
What is the definition of an organ system?
A
A system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major vital body function, such as digestion or reproduction
14
Q
What is the meaning of cellular differentiation?
A
Cellular differentiation is the process in which a stem cell changes to a more specialized type.
15
Q
What is a stem cell?
A
An undifferentiated cell that can divide to form specialized cells
16
Q
What is the difference between embryonic stem cells and tissue stem cells?
A
Embryonic cells
- only found during the first week of development
- can become any type of cell in the body
Tissue stem cells:
- they can differentiate into a limited set of cell types, specific to their tissue or origin
- found in various tissues and organs throughout the body, including bone marrow, blood, skin, and brain
17
Q
Why are the stem cells from the umbilical cord considered to be tissue stem cells?
A
Because embryonic cells are only found during the first week (7 days) of a child’s development.
Tissue stem cells are used to describe any stem cells that are not found in embryos.
Also, they are considered stem cells because they contain cells that can turn into all types of blood cells, which can be used to treat various diseases such as childhood cancer.
18
Q
What is an embryo?
A
The early developmental stage of an organism
19
Q
What is the benefit of harvesting stem cells?
A
It is valuable because the cells can become different types of specialized cells that can be used for various purposes:
- restoring blood cell production after cancer treatments
- repairing damaged tissues
- potentially offering treatment for various diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases
20
Q
What is the difference between deceased and living organ transplants?
A
Deceased:
- can offer more organs
- no risk of issues during surgery such as infection (for that who is deceased, but there is a risk for that who is receiving the organ)
Living
- can offer less organs
- risk of infection for both
21
Q
What are the similarities between deceased and living organ transplants?
A
- risk of infection during surgery
- must be compatible
22
Q
Explain why one’s body would reject an organ?
A
If the tissue of the donor and recipient is very different, the body of the recipient might recognize the organ as a foreign material, causing the immune system to destroy/reject it.
23
Q
What are the 2 risks of organ donation?
A
- The recipient may reject the organ
- there is always a chance that things will go wrong during surgery such as infection
24
Q
Which type of organ transplant is more common? Why?
A
Deceased as there are many people that die each year, those who are dead have many more organs to offer, and there is not a fear that those who are deceased will need their organs
25
What is xenotransplantation?
The transplantation of animal organ for humans.
26
What organs make up the digestive system?
The mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, rectum, and anus.
The accessory organs include the liver, pancreas, and gall bladder.
27
What are the accessory organs and why are they called this?
The accessory organs include the liver, pancreas, and gall bladder.
An accessory organ is a structure that assists the functionality of other organs in a system
28
What kind of tissue is the entire digestive system lined with? Why?
Epithelial tissue because it has other types of cells with specific purposes to the digestive system. One example of these cells is goblet cells, which secrete mucous so keep the food and waste moving, and to keep the stomach acid from harming stomach tissue
29
What are the two purposes of mucous?
1. It protects the digestive tube (the long path from the mouth to the anus) from digestive enzymes
2. It allows materials to pass smoothly along the tube
30
What are the two ways that the mouth begins to break down food?
1. Mechanically
- with teeth and tongue
2. Chemically
- with an enzyme called salivary amylase (made by epithelial tissue in the mouth), which breaks down carbohydrates/starches.
31
What is an enzyme?
A chemical that speeds up chemical reactions in the body
32
The esophagus is a muscular tube, connecting your mouth to your stomach. What kind of tissue is it lined with an why?
It is lined with smooth muscle tissue, which contracts and relaxes without conscious thought (it is controlled by nerve tissue). This contraction and relaxation helps to move food along.
It is also lined with epithelial tissue which secretes mucus to move food along and protect the esophagus from the abrasive effects of food
Lined with connective tissue to support its structure and function
33
What is the main function of the stomach?
To hold and churn food to aid in digestion
34
Digestive enzymes in the stomach are called what?
PEPSIN.
35
What is the purpose of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
Hydrochloric acid helps break down foods and harmful microorganisms and it lowers the pH in the stomach, which helps pepsin (a digestive enzyme) work better.
36
Why is the stomach lined with mucous?
To prevent it from being harmed from its own acids
37
Why is the stomach lined with nerves
Because the nerves send fullness signals to the brain
Also, unconsiously, the nervous system manages digestion
38
What are the intestines lined with?
Many, thin blood vessels (cappillaries) to absorb the nutrients from the food through diffusion, smooth muscle tissues that contract and relax to move food along, epithelial cells that produce mucous to help move food along, and nerve tissue because the nervous system controls digestion, secretion, and the movement of the intestines to maximize nutrient absorption.
39
What are the two different intestines and their differences?
Small intestine:
- 6m in length
- relatively narrow
- Enzymes break down food into smaller molecules, and these nutrients diffuse into the bloodstream
- Some of the enzymes that exist there include: lactase (digests lactose), sucrase (digests sucrose), and lipase (digests fat).
Large intestine:
- 1.5 meters in length
- larger in diameter
- absorbs water from indigestible foods
40
What are some of the enzymes found in the small intestine and their purpose?
Lastase: Digests lactose
Sucrase: Digests sucrose
Lipase: Digests fats
41
What is the function of the rectum?
- Stores feces from the large intestine, until it is full, and the nerves send signals to defecate
- connects the large intestine to the anus
42
What is the function of the anus?
- facilitates the elimination of feces from the digestive system (the opening)
- nerve and muscle tissue coordinate to tell you when to poop
43
What is the purpose of the liver?
- the liver secretes bile (a fluid) which is used to help break down fats consumed to turn them to energy
- bile is stored in the gall bladder but secreted in the liver
44
What is the purpose of the gall bladder?
- stores bile (which is produced by the liver), and when required, is sent to the small intestine to digest/break down fats
45
What is the purpose of the pancreas?
- The pancreas produces insulin, which is used to regulate glucose (sugar) in the blood.
46
What are the 4 types of tissue that the digestive system is lined with?
- smooth muscle tissue
- epithelial tissue
- connective tissue
- nerves
47
What is the function and purpose of connective tissue?
Connective tissue
Supports
by binding structures together and forming a framework and support for the body as a whole
Protects
by filling the space between your organs and tissues
48
Why is digestion important?
It is necessary because it breaks down food into smaller, usable nutrients that the body uses for energy, growth and repair
Cells (specifically the mitochondria) require glucose to execute cellular respiration (the process in which the cells turn glucosr to usable energy)
49
What are the things that are added to food during the digestive process?
- salivary amylase
- sucrase
- lipase
- lactase
- pepsin
- bile
50
What do the cells in our body need constantly?
Oxygen and nutrients, and the disposal of carbon dioxide and waste
51
Which system ensures that the cells receive the oxygen and nutrients they need, along with the disposal of carbon dioxide and waste?
The circulatory system through the transportation of blood
52
What are the 3 main parts of the heart?
Blood, the heart, and blood vessels
53
What are the 4 components the blood is made up of?
1. red blood cells
2. white blood cells
3. platelets
4. plasma
54
What are white blood cells and their functions?
- make up less than 1% of the blood volume
- infection-fighting cells
55
What are platelets and their functions?
- less than 1% of blood volume
- help in blood-clotting to close wounds to protect from infections
56
What are red blood cells and their functions?
- make up half of the bloods volume
- contain a protein called hemoglobin, which allows them to transport oxygen throughout the body, specifically to the cells
- they also take the carbon dioxide and waste released from cells, and carries it to the lungs so that it can be breathed out
57
What is plasma and its function?
- makes up over half the bloods volume
- protein-rich, yellow-pale liquid that carries blood cells, nutrients, and waste along
58
What are the 4 different types of tissue that the heart is made up of?
1. Cardiac muscle tissue
found only in the heart, and contract involuntarily
2. nerve tissue
Heart rate is regulated by the brain
3. connective tissue
keeps the heart localized and protects it from trauma
4. Epithelial tissue
59
What is the protein that red blood cells have?
Hemoglobin
60
What is the function of hemoglobin in red blood cells?
It allows the red blood cells to transport oxygen throughout the body (oxygen binds to hemoglobin)
61
What is the function of cardiac muscle tissue?
- only found in the heart
- assists in the contraction of the heart to pump blood involuntarily
62
Explain the cycle of the circulatory system
1. The upper right chamber (right atrium) receives carbon dioxide-rich blood from the body
2. The carbon dioxide-rich blood moves into the lower right chamber (right ventricle), which pumps it to the lungs
3. Inside the lungs, the blood gets rid of the carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen again.
4. The upper left chamber (left atrium) receives the oxygen rich blood from the lungs
5. The oxygen-rich blood moves from the left atrium to the left ventricle, which pumps it into the rest of the body
63
What is it called if it is upper verses lower (circulatory system)
Upper: Atrium
Lower: Ventricle
64
What are the 3 types of blood vessels?
1. arteries
2. veins
3. capillaries
65
What are arteries and their function?
- Carry blood away from the heart
- it's under greater pressure than the blood from other vessels (the walls of the arteries are much thicker to withstand this pressure)
65
What are veins and their function?
- They carry blood toward the heart
- The blood in the veins is at a lower pressure, so the walls are not as thick
- They have valves in them to prevent the backflow of blood
66
What are capillaries and their function?
- tiny, very narrow blood vessels
- very thin walls that allow substances to diffuse between the blood and other body fluids and tissues
67
What substances are carried by the circulatory system?
- blood
- oxygen
- carbon dioxide
- nutrients
- waste
68
How does the circulatory system interact with the digestive system?
The digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules, and the circulatory system then transports the absorbed nutrients through the bloodstream to cells and tissues.
69
What is an angiogram?
An angiogram is a type of X-ray. A fluorescent dye is injected into the artery, and X-ray scans are taken. The image is colourized by a computer, making the arteries especially visible. A white rectangle highlights the blockage in the artery's heart.
70
What tissue is in the blood?
Connective tissue
71
What tissue is in the blood vessels?
Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, smooth muscle tissue
72
How is cardiac muscle tissue different to smooth muscle tissue?
- Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart
- Cardiac muscle tissue goes through rhythmic contractions, even without nerve input, whereas smooth muscle tissue only contracts with nerve input.
73
What is the purpose/function of the respiratory system?
- responsible for providing the body with oxygen and removing carbon dioxide produced by the body as it uses energy for growth, repair and movement.
- works in close collaboration with the circulatory system, which transports substances all throughout the body
74
Which organs/parts of the body are part of the respiratory system?
The lungs and other parts of the body that connect the lungs to the outside, such as the mouth, nose, pharynx (throat), larynx and trachea, which separates into 2 branches called bronchi (singular: bronchus). Those branches then divide into secondary bronchi, then tertiary bronchi, then bronchioles
75
Many epithelial cells have cilia (hairlike projections). What is their purpose in the respiratory system?
Cilia help to move mucus and filter out and foreign material that might enter the system
76
How does the trachea remain open?
It is supported by rings of cartilage
76
What is cartilage?
A special type of dense connective tissue consisting of specialized cells that are embedded in a matrix of strong but flexible collagen fibres.
This matrix was formed by cells but is not actually living material
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What is an alveolus?
A tiny sac of air in the lungs that is surrounded by a network of capillaries, where gas exchange takes place between air and blood.
The alveoli have very thin walls for the efficient diffusion
Oxygen and carbon dioxide must only diffuse through 2 thin walls: the walls of the capillaries and of the aveolus
77
When we breathe in, the volume of our lungs increase. What allows for this to happen?
- Muscles that move the ribs allow the ribs to expand and contract (intercostal muscles)
- the diaphragm, a large sheet of muscle under the lungs
78
How is the brain involved in our breathing?
- There is a part of the brain that detects the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
- When the levels of carbon dioxide increase, the brain sends signals to the diaphragm, muscles between the ribs, and to the heart
- the breathing rate increases, and the heart beats faster
79
What does the bone tissue consist of?
- bone cells
- a matrix of minerals (mainly calcium and phosphorus)
- collagen fibres
80
What do the canals inside of bones contain?
Nerves and blood vessels
81
What are ligaments?
- tough, elastic connective tissues that hold bones together at the joints
- They are made up of mostly long fibres of collagen
82
What is the main purpose of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange
83
What is the purpose of cartilage for the bones?
It provides strong, flexible, low-friction support, for bones and other tissues
84
What are the 3 types of skeletal muscle tissue?
- Skeletal (voluntary) muscle tissue (primarily controls posture and movement)
- Smooth (involuntary) muscle tissue (primarily found in certain organ systems such as the urinary and digestive system)
- Cardiac muscle tissue (contracts without nerve input, and only on the heart)
85
What attaches muscles to bones?
Tendons
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What is the main role of the skeleton?
To provide structure and support for the body
Some organs also support some soft organs such as the skull, which supports the brain
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What do bones store/contain?
Calcium and other minerals
Some contain marrow, which produces red and white blood cells
88
How do muscles make bones move?
Muscles contract due to input from the nervous system. When the muscle contracts, it moves the one or more bones that the muscle is connected to.
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Muscles cannot pull but they can push. True or false?
True
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What is the difference between breathing and gas exchange?
Gas exchange is responsible for getting oxygen into the blood and removing carbon dioxide as a person breathes. Breathing is the movement of oxygen in and out of the lungs.
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What are the main functions of the musculoskeletal system
to provide support, structure, and allow for movement. Also, some bones allow safety for soft organ, such as the skull protecting the brain.
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What is the difference between a tendon and a ligament?
They are both pieces of fibrous connective tissue, but a tendon is a piece that attaches muscles to the bones, whereas the ligaments connect bones to bones.
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Why are skeletal muscle tissues considered voluntary?
Because we control how and when they move and work with the information from our nervous system
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Why are older people more prone to bone fractures?
- Less calcium, estrogen, and testosterone cause weaker bones
- Older people lose muscle mass much faster, which can cause them to move their bones more slowly
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Explain how gas exchange occurs:
- You breathe in oxygen through the nasal or oral cavity
- nose hair, cilia, and mucus trap and remove any dust or contaminants. Also, the air is humidified and warm
- The oxygen will pass through your pharynx, larynx, and trachea
- The trachea then divides into 2 bronchi (also called primary bronchi)
- From there, the oxygen passes through the secondary bronchi, then the tertiary bronchi, and to the bronchioles
- From the bronchioles, there are respiratory bronchioles, and alveolar ducts, which are surrounded by alveolar sacs
- The alveoli is where the gas exchange occurs
- The alveoli have thin walls and capillaries surrounding them
- The red blood cells in the capillaries pick up the oxygen that was inhaled to deliver it throughout the body
- the red blood cells also bring back carbon dioxide so that it can be exhaled
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How does the circulatory system interact with the respiratory?
The red blood cells of the circulatory system carry the oxygen from the lungs (alveoli) to be sent around the rest of the body, and they bring back carbon dioxide so that it can exhaled
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How does the nervous system interact with the respiratory system?
- The nervous system uses pH to regulate our breathing
- Acids have a higher concentration of hydrogen ions
- the increase of carbon dioxide concentration leads to the increase of hydrogen ions
- hence, with an increasing amount of carbon dioxide, the acidity increases as well
- this acidity sends a signal to the brain to contract the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in order to increase the rate and depth of breathing
98
What is considered a normal blood pH?
7.4
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How does the skeletal system work with the respiratory?
The ribs protect the lungs
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How does the muscular system work with the respiratory?
The diaphragm, abdominal wall and intercostal muscles contract to increase the depth of breathing
101
What is the purpose of the valves in the heart?
The valves separate the chambers of the heart from one another and restrict backflow of blood
102
Explain the path of blood throughout the heart and lungs:
- Blood from the toe is considered deoxygenated (low oxygen), and it must get to the heart to be pumped to the lungs to pick up oxygen, then be spread throughout the body
- blood flows THROUGH the inferior vena cava, and INTO the right atrium
- the right atrium CONTRACTS, sending the blood through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle
- The right ventricle CONTRACTS, pumping the blood THROUGH the pulmonary valve and INTO the pulmonary artery
- The pulmonary artery takes the blood to the lungs, and the red blood cells pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide
- The blood is now oxygenated
- The blood must return to the heart so that the oxygenated blood can be pumped throughout the body
- the blood travels THROUGH the pulmonary vein, INTO the left atrium
- The left atrium CONTRACTS, and the blood travels THROUGH the mitral valve (or bicuspid valve), and into the left ventricle
- the left ventricle contracts and pumps blood THROUGH the aortic valve and INTO the aorta (a major artery that carries oxygenated blood to the rest of the body)
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What is cellular respiration?
The chemical reaction process in which glucose and oxygen produce carbon dioxide, energy and water
104
The relation between the nervous system and the musculoskeletal system
The nervous system sends signals to the muscle fibres to contract, and move the muscles and the bones
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Relation between the nervous system and the circulatory system
The circulatory system brings oxygen and nutrients to the brain. The brain controls heart rate and blood pressure
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Relation between the circulatory system and the digestive
There are many blood vessels (capillaries) surrounding the digestive system so that the nutrients can diffuse into the bloodstream, then be transported throughout the entire body.
107
Relation between the nervous system and the digestive
Gut hormones communicate with the brain to signal hunger and satiety
108
The relation between the circulatory system and the musculoskeletal system
The circulatory system helps the muscles receive the oxygen and nutrients that they need
Muscle cells have more mitochondria because they must undergo much cellular respiration to create energy
109
What are the symptoms, causes, and treatments of anemia?
Causes: Lack of iron leads to a lack of the protein hemoglobin being made, and oxygen binds to the hemoglobin so that it can be transported throughout the body. Hence, without enough hemoglobin, the oxygen is not being properly transported, and so cells cannot execute cellular respiration properly.
Symptoms:
- dizziness
- rapid heartbeat after slight movement
- looking pale
Treatments:
- eating more iron-rich foods
taking iron supplements/medications
110
What are the symptoms, causes, and treatments of GERD?
Symptoms:
- chest pain
- burning pain
- dry cough
- sore throat
Causes:
- spicy foods (slow down digestion)
- eating late (not enough time for food to digest)
- eating acidic foods
- eating too much
Treatments:
- antacids
- eating bland foods
- eating earlier
111
What are the symptoms, causes, and treatments of asthma?
Symptoms:
- tightness in the chest
- difficulty breathing
- wheezing
Causes: Unknown
Treatments:
- inhalers are most common (they allow you to breathe in medicine)
112
What are the causes of diarrhea and constipation?
Diarrhea: The food passes too quickly through the large, and so, not enough water is absorbed
Constipation: Food passes too slowly through the large intestine, causing too much water to be absorbed making the stool rough to pass
113
What are the Catholic Church's thoughts regarding stem cells?
Catholic Social Teaching Human Dignity: You are valued for who you are, not what you can do. Every human is created in the image and likeness of God, which means that every human has value from the very beginning of life.
Embryos have a unique genetic makeup
Embryos have individuality and autonomy
Embryos have developmental potential
We consider the embryo to be a human being, and therefore deserving of respect and dignity
114
Where does the church draw the line with human cloning?
Cloning humans makes them seem like objects rather than unique individuals who deserve to be honoured
115
Where does the church draw the line with stem cells research?
Embryonic research requires the destruction of an embryo, which is ending human life
116
Where does the church draw the line with organ transplantation?
The church draws the line with selling organs for profit because this can exploit the poor, pressuring them to sell their organs
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Where does the church draw the line with transgenic plants and animals?
The church draws the line when it comes to using genetic modifications recklessly, as it can harm the environment (abuse of creation) or lead to large corporations taking over small farms (exploitation of the poor)
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How do faith and science go hand in hand?
Science asks, "How?", faith asks, "Why?"
The church supports science as long as it respects the dignity of everyone.
119
How can tissue stem cells be used to cure diseases?
Tissue stem cells can be used to cure diseases because they can be guided into becoming specific types of cells that can be used in people to repair or regenerate tissues that have been damaged due to diseases.
120
Where are tissue stem cells found?
In bone marrow
121
What does regeneration mean?
Regeneration refers to the ability of a tissue to repair itself. EX: Skin, muscle, and bone can grow and heal after an injury
122
Explain where all of our cells come from:
- Embryonic stem cells are present during the earliest stages of life
- They divide and differentiate into various specific cells
- these specific cells eventually form tissues and organs, which then form organ systems
123
What kind of tissue is the skin made up of?
Epithelial Tissue
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