Biology DAT Ch. 1-5 Flashcards

Question

Chitin

Answer 1

component of fungi cell wall and insect exoskeleton, bonded by b (beta) polysaccharides, with nitrogen added to each monomer

Answer 2

multiple monomers bonded by glycosidic bonds in a long polymer

Answer 3

contain hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen (CHON). These combine to form amino acids, which link up to form polypeptides.

Answer 4

(proteins) polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds through dehydration and hydrolysis reactions. It forms an amino acid chain with two end terminals on opposite sides.

Answer 5

20 different, each have a different R-group

Answer 6

(amino terminus) the polypeptides side that ends with the last amino acid's amino group

Answer 7

(carboxyl terminus) the polypeptide side that ends with the last amino acid's carboxyl group

Answer 8

primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure

Answer 9

globular, fibrous, intermediate

Answer 10

temperature change, pH change, and salt concentration

Answer 11

``` storage immunity receptors enzymes hormones motion structure ```

Answer 12

conjugated (amino acids + other components) and simple (amino acids)

Answer 13

sequence of amino acids

Answer 14

alpha and beta pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding due to intermolecular forces between polypeptide backbone

Answer 15

3D structure due to interactions between R-groups. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic. Disulfide bonds are created by covalent bonding between R-groups of two cysteine amino acids.

Answer 16

multiple polypeptides chains coming together to form one protein

Answer 17

reserve of amino acids

Answer 18

provide signaling throughout the body to regulate physiological processes

Answer 19

Proteins in cell membrane which bond to signal molecules to trigger changes inside the cell

Answer 20

movement generated for a cells or of an entire organism

Answer 21

Provide strength and support to tissues

Answer 22

Prevention and protection against foreign invaders

Answer 23

acts as a biological catalyst, binding to the substrate (reactants) to convert them into products

Answer 24

increases reaction rate by lowering activation energy, it reduces energy in the transition state. They do not shift chemical reaction & do not affect spontaneity

Answer 25

unstable intermediate between reactants and products

Answer 26

site on enzyme where substrate binds, it is specific

Answer 27

measures how efficient the substrate binds with the enzyme and converting it to a product

Answer 28

the active site changes shape to fit the substrate when it binds, also known as "lock and key" model

Answer 29

RNA molecule that acts as an enzyme

Answer 30

non-protein molecule that helps enzymes perform its reaction

Answer 31

An organic cofactor such as vitamins. (inorganic=metal ions)

Answer 32

cofactor + enzyme

Answer 33

enzyme + NO cofactor

Answer 34

cofactor tightly or covalently bonded with its enzyme

Answer 35

competitive inhibitor competes with substrate for the active site binding. Adding more substrate would increase enzyme reaction rate. Km = increases Vmax = stays the same

Answer 36

noncompetitive inhibitor does not compete for active site but instead binds on allosteric site, thus modifying the active site. Adding more substrate would NOT increase enzyme reaction rate. Km = stays the same Vmax = decreases

Answer 37

other site on enzyme that is not the active site

Answer 38

can be used to visualize how inhibitors affect enzymes

Answer 39

substrate concentration at which velocity is 50% of vmax

Answer 40

maximum reaction of velocity

Answer 41

occurs when all active sites are occupied, so the rate of reaction does not increase anymore despite increasing substrate concentration

Answer 42

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO), they have long hydrocarbon tails making them very hydrophobic

Answer 43

a lipid molecule with a glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acids linked by ester linkages

Answer 44

links glycerol back bone and the 3 fatty acids

Answer 45

3 carbon and 3 hydroxyl groups

Answer 46

no double bonds and as a result pack TIGHTLY (solid at room temperature)

Answer 47

double bonds by monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Answer 48

have kinks that cause the hydrocarbon tails to bend, thus do not pack tightly

Answer 49

have straighter hydrocarbon tails so they pack more tightly (unhealthy)

Answer 50

lipid molecule that have glycerol backbone, one phosphate group, and 2 fatty acids, causing it to be amphipathic, thus spontaneously assembling into a lipid bilayer

Answer 51

lipid molecule that has 4 fused hydrocarbon rings. It is amphipathic. It is the most common precursor to steroid hormones. It helps with membrane fluidity

Answer 52

cholesterol is its precursor, 4 hydrocarbon rings

Answer 53

material for vitamin D and bile acids

Answer 54

temperature: increase of temp = increase of fluidity cholesterol = holds membrane together at HIGH temp and keeps membrane fluid at LOW temp degree of unsaturation

Answer 55

allow the transportation of lipid molecules into the blood stream due to out coat of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins

Answer 56

"Bad Cholesterol" | low protein density, delivers cholesterol to peripheral tissues, and vessel blockage can occur

Answer 57

"Good Cholesterol" high protein density, delivers and takes cholesterol away from peripheral tissues to the liver to make bile (reduces blood lipid levels)

Answer 58

Hydrophobic protective coating, simple lipids that have long fatty acids connected to monohydroxy alcohols through ester linkages

Answer 59

Pigments, lipid derivatives containing long carbon chains with conjugated double bonds and 6 membered rings at each end.

Answer 60

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus (CHONP). Nucleotide monomers that build into DNA or RNA polymers.

Answer 61

Nucleoside - ribose sugar and nitrogenous base Nucleotide - ribose sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate group

Answer 62

contain hydrogen at the 2' carbon

Answer 63

contain hydroxyl group at the 2' carbon

Answer 64

A, G (two rings)

Answer 65

C T and U (one ring)

Answer 66

connect the phosphate group of one nucleotide at the 5' carbon to the hydroxyl group at the 3' carbon. A series of phosphodiester bonds create the sugar-phosphate backbone with a 5'end free phosphate and a 3'end free hydroxyl.

Answer 67

proceeds as nucleoside triphosphate are added to the 3' end of the sugar-phosphate backbone

Answer 68

double stranded, antiparallel double helix, two complementary strands with opposite directionalities (5' and 3' end) twist around each other.

Answer 69

single stranded after being copied from DNA during transcription, U replaces T and binds to A.

Answer 70

1. All lifeforms have one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic structural, functional, and organizational unit of life. 3. All cells from from other cells (cell division). 4. Genetic information is stored and passed down through DNA 5. An organism's activity is dependent on the total activity of its independent cells. 6. Metabolism and biochemistry (energy flow) occurs within cells 7. All cells have the same chemical composition within organisms of similar species.

Answer 71

information is passed through DNA --> RNA --> Protein | exceptions: reverse transcriptase and prions

Answer 72

states that RNA dominated Earth's primordial soup before there was life. RNA developed self-replicating mechanisms and later could catalyze reactions such as protein synthesis to make more complex macromolecules. Since RNA is reactive and unstable, DNA later became way of reliably of storing genetic information.

Answer 73

2 hydrogen bonds

Answer 74

3 hydrogen bonds

Answer 75

is made up of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins

Answer 76

are either integral or peripheral membrane proteins

Answer 77

Transverse the entire bilayer, thus it is amphipathic. Assist in transport and cell signaling.

Answer 78

is found outside the bilayer, thus it is hydrophilic. Assist with cell recognition, receptor, adhesion.

Answer 79

Trigger secondary responses within cell for signaling

Answer 80

attaches cells to other things (e.g. other cells).

Answer 81

proteins which have carbohydrate chains (glycoproteins). Used by cells to recognize other cells.

Answer 82

any of a class of proteins that have carbohydrate groups attached to the polypeptide chain. They form hydrogen bonds with the water molecules surrounding the cell and thus help to stabilize membrane structure.

Answer 83

describes how the components that make up the cell membrane can move freely within the membrane (fluid). Thus, the cell membrane contains many different kinds of structures (mosaic).

Answer 84

Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.

Answer 85

flow of small, uncharged non-polar substances (e.g. O2 and Co2) across the cell membrane from high to low without using energy.

Answer 86

simple diffusion that involved water molecules

Answer 87

integral proteins allow larger, hydrophilic molecules to cross the cell membrane; uniporters, symporters, or antiporters, channel proteins, carrier proteins, passive diffusion, porins and ion channels

Answer 88

Integral protein open tunnel from both sides of bilayer

Answer 89

Integral protein that binds to a molecule on one side to change the shape to bring it to the other side

Answer 90

performed by channel proteins,, bring molecules down their concentration gradient without energy use (similar to simple diffusion but a protein channel is used). E.g. porins and ion channels

Answer 91

substances that travel against their concentration gradient and require the consumption of energy by carrier proteins.

Answer 92

us a primary active transport that uses ATP hydrolysis to pump molecules against their concentration gradient. It establishes membrane potential.

Answer 93

uses free energy released when other molecules flow down their concentration gradient (gradient established by primary active transport) to pump the molecule of interest across the membrane.

Answer 94

refers to the bulk transport of large, hydrophilic molecules across the cell membrane and requires energy (active transport mechanism).

Answer 95

cell membrane wrapping around an extracellular substance, internalizing it into the cell via vesicle or vacuole. Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Answer 96

cellular eating around solid objects

Answer 97

cellular drinking around dissolved materials (liquids)

Answer 98

requires binding of dissolved molecules to peripheral membrane receptor proteins, which initiates endocytosis.

Answer 99

initiates endocytosis, binds to dissolved molecules for receptor-mediated endocytosis

Answer 100

opposite of endocytosis, releasing material to the extracellular environment through vesicle secretion

Answer 101

cellular compartments enclosed by phospholipids bilayers (membrane bound) located in the cytosol.

Answer 102

aqueous intracellular fluid

Answer 103

cytosol + organelles

Answer 104

do not have organelles but have other adaptation such as keeping their genetic material in a region called the nucleoid.

Answer 105

primarily functions to protect and house DNA. DNA replication and transcription occurs here (DNA --> mRNA).

Answer 106

is the cytoplasm of the nucleus

Answer 107

membrane of the nucleus. Two phospholipids bilayers (outer and inner) with a perinuclear space in the middle

Answer 108

holes in the nuclear envelope that allows molecules to travel in and out of the nucleus

Answer 109

provides structural support for the nucleus, as well as regulating DNA and cell division

Answer 110

is a dense area that is responsible for making rRNA, and producing ribosomal subunits.

Answer 111

rRNA + proteins

Answer 112

not an organelle but work as small factories that carry out translation (mRNA --> protein). Composed of ribosomal subunits.

Answer 113

(60s + 40s) to assemble in the nucleoplasm and form a complete ribosome in the cytosol of 80s.

Answer 114

(50s + 30s) to assemble in the nucleoid and form the complete ribosome in the cytosol 70s.

Answer 115

ribosomes make proteins that function in the cytosol

Answer 116

ribosomes make proteins that are sent out of the cell or to the cell membrane. Rough ER is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. Proteins synthesized by the embedded ribosomes are sent into the lumen for modifications (glycosylation).

Answer 117

Not continuous. Its main function is to synthesize lipids, detoxify cells, and produce steroid hormones.

Answer 118

made up of cisternae (flattened sacs) that modify and package substances. Vesicles come from the ER and reach the cis face of the Golgi and leave from the trans face.

Answer 119

membrane-bound organelles that break down substances taking through endocytosis. They contain acidic digestive enzymes that function at low pH. They carry out autophagy and apoptosis.

Answer 120

breakdown of the cell's own machinery for recycling

Answer 121

programmed cell death

Answer 122

transport material between organelles

Answer 123

temporarily hold endocytosed food and later fuse with lysosomes

Answer 124

large in plants and have a specialized membrane called tonoplast that helps maintain cell rigidity by exerting turgor. Functions in storage and material breakdown.

Answer 125

stores pigments, starches, and toxic substances

Answer 126

found in single-celled organisms and works to actively pump excess water out

Answer 127

works to modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids that are entering and exiting the cell. Nucleus, ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, and cell membrane.

Answer 128

contain an enzyme called catalase that performs hydrolysis, and break down stored fatty acids and help with detoxification. These processes generate hydrogen peroxide , which is toxic because produces ROS.

Answer 129

damage cells through free radicals

Answer 130

enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

Answer 131

powerhouse of the cell, generates ATP for energy use through cellular respiration

Answer 132

found in plants and some protist, carries out photorespiration

Answer 133

found in animal cells containing a pair of centrioles, oriented at 90 degree angles to one-another. They replicate during the S phase of the cell cycle so that each daughter cell after cell division has one centrosome.

Answer 134

present in eukaryotic cells and organize microtubule extension during cell division.

Answer 135

provides function and structure within the cytoplasm; microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

Answer 136

smallest, are composed of 2 actin filaments. Involved in cell movement and can quickly assemble and disassemble.

Answer 137

cyclosis, muscle contraction, and cleavage furrow

Answer 138

cytoplasmic streaming, stirring of the cytoplasm, organelles and vesicles travel on microfilament tracks

Answer 139

during cell division, actin microfilaments form contractile rings that split the cell.

Answer 140

actin have directionality, allowing myosin motor proteins to pull on them for muscles contraction

Answer 141

structural support, keratin and lamins in nuclear lamina

Answer 142

largest, structural integrity to cells, they are hollow and have walls made of tubulin protein dimers

Answer 143

hollow cylinders made of 9 triplets of microtubules (9x3 array)

Answer 144

have 9 doublets of microtubules with two singles in the center (9+2 array) and are produced by a basal body

Answer 145

formed by the mother centriole and produce cilia and flagella

Answer 146

older centriole after S phase replication

Answer 147

provides mechanical support between cells

Answer 148

type of glycoprotein that have a high proportion of carbohydrates

Answer 149

most common structural protein and organized into collagen fibrils (secreted by fiboblasts)

Answer 150

transmembrane protein that facilitates ECM adhesion and signals to cells how to respond to the extracellular environment (growth, apoptosis, etc.)

Answer 151

protein that connects integrin to ECM and helps with signal transduction

Answer 152

influence cell differentiation, adhesion, and movement, it is a major component of the basal lamina.

Answer 153

are carbohydrate-based structures that act like a substitute ECM because they provide structural support to cells that either do not have or have minimal ECM. Present in plants (cellulose), fungi (chitin), bacteria (peptidoglycan), and archaea.

Answer 154

glycolipid/glycoprotein coat found mainly on bacterial and animal epithelial cells. Helps with adhesion, protection, and cell recognition.

Answer 155

ECM --> cytoskeleton | focal adhesions and hemidesmosomes

Answer 156

ECM connects via integrins to actin microfilament inside the cell

Answer 157

ECM connects via integrins to intermediate filaments inside the cell

Answer 158

connect adjacent cells

Answer 159

form water-tight seals between cells to ensure substancecs pass through cells and not between them

Answer 160

provide support against mechanical stress. connects neighboring cells via intermediate filaments

Answer 161

similar in structure and function to desmosomes, but connects neighboring cells via acting filaments

Answer 162

allow passage of ions and small molecules between cells

Answer 163

plant cell, sticky cement similar in function to tight junctions

Answer 164

plant cell, tunnels with tubes between plant cells, allows cytosol fluids to freely travel between plant cells.

Answer 165

same solute concentration as the cells placed in them

Answer 166

have higher solute concentration than the cells placed in them, causing water to leave the cell and it shrinking

Answer 167

have a lower solute concentration than the cells place in them, causing water to enter the cell (cell swells up), lysis is the bursting of a cell when too much water enters

Answer 168

refers to metabolic pathways (a series of chemical reactions) that are happening in an organism.

Answer 169

breaking down larger molecules for energy

Answer 170

using energy to build larger macromolecules

Answer 171

utilize aerobic or anaerobic cellular respiration

Answer 172

is an RNA nucleoside triphosphate. It contains adenosine nitrogenous base linked to a ribose sugar and 3 phosphate groups. It is the cellular energy currency because of the high energy bonds between the phosphates groups. These bonds release energy by hydrolysis, breaking the bonds.

Answer 173

the process of powering energy-requiring reactions with energy releasing reaction. It allows unfavored reaction to be powered by a favorable one, making the net Gibbs free energy negative, exergonic, spontaneous

Answer 174

inner (with cristae) and outer membrane, intermembrane space, and matrix

Answer 175

states that aerobic bacteria were internalized as mitochondria while the photosynthetic bacteria became chloroplasts. Size similarities and the fact that mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own circular DNA and ribosomes.

Answer 176

is performed to phosphorylate ADP into ATP, by breaking down glucose and moving electrons around. It involves 4 catabolic processes: glycolysis, pyruvate manipulation, krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Answer 177

Glucose --> 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 Pyruvate | Takes place in the cytosol and does NOT require oxygen

Answer 178

the process used to generate ATP in glycolysis, transferring a phosphate group to ADP directly from a phosphorylated compound.

Answer 179

Hexokinase uses one ATP to phosphorylate glucose into glucose-6-phosphate, which cannot leave the cell.

Answer 180

Isomerase modifies glucose-6-phosphate fructose-6-phosphate.

Answer 181

Phosphofructokinase uses a second ATP to phosphorylate fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-biphosphate.

Answer 182

Fructose-1,6-biphosphate is broken into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), which are in equilibrium with one another.

Answer 183

G3P proceeds to the energy payoff phase so DHAP is constanly converted into G3p to maintain equilibrium. 1 glucose molecule will produce 2 G3P that continue into the next steps.

Answer 184

G3P undergoes a series of redox reactions to produce 4 ATP through substrate-level-phosphorylation, 2 pyruvate and 2 NADH.

Answer 185

2 pyruvate --> 2CO2 + 2NADH + 2 acetyl CoA

Answer 186

is an enzyme that carries out the pyruvate manipulation; decarboxylation, oxidation, and Coenzyme A

Answer 187

Decarboxylation: pyruvate molecules move from the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix (except for prokaryotes), a carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, releasing carbon dioxide.

Answer 188

Oxidation: two-carbon molecule is converted into an acetyl group, giving electrons to NAD+ to convert it into NADH

Answer 189

Coenzyme A: CoA binds to the acetyl group, producing acetyl CoA

Answer 190

2 acetyl CoA --> 4 CO2 + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + GTP | Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

Answer 191

Acetyl CoA joins oxaloacetate (4 carbon) to form citrate (6 carbon)

Answer 192

Citrate undergoes rearrangements producing 2 CO2 and 2 NADH

Answer 193

After the loss of 2 CO2, the resulting 4 carbon molecule produces 1 GTP through substrate level phosphorylation

Answer 194

The molecule will now transfer electrons to 1 FAD+, which is reduced into 1 FADH2

Answer 195

The molecule is converted back to oxaloacetate, thus gives electrons to produce 1 NADH

Answer 196

Electron carriers (NADH + FADH2) + O2 --> ATP + H2O

Answer 197

regenerate electron carriers and create an electrochemical gradient to power ATP production. The mitochondrial inner membrane is the ETC for eukaryotes while cell membrane is for prokaryotes

Answer 198

four protein complexes I-IV are responsible for moving electrons through a series in the ETC.

Answer 199

As the series of redox reactions occurs, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, making it highly acidic

Answer 200

NADH is more effective and drops electrons off, regenerating NAD+

Answer 201

FADH2 drops electrons off at this second protein, regenerating FAD+, this results in less pumping of protons due to the bypassing of complex I

Answer 202

Use the proton electrochemical gradient (proton-motive force) to synthesize ATP

Answer 203

is a channel protein that provides hydrophilic tunnel to allow protons to flow down their electrochemical gradient (back into the mitochondrial matrix). The spontaneous movement of protons generates energy that is used to convert ADP + Pi --> ATP, a condensation reaction that is endergonic, +∆G

Answer 204

3 ATP (NADH from glycolysis produces less)

Answer 205

Net products: 2 ATP & 2 NADH | Net yield ATP: 2 ATP & 4-6 ATP

Answer 206

Net products: 2 NADH | Net yield ATP: 6 ATP

Answer 207

Net products: 2 GTP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2 | Net yield ATP: 2 ATP, 18 ATP, 4 ATP

Answer 208

does not require energy, anaerobic pathway, only relies on glycolysis by converting the produced pyruvate into different molecules in order to oxidize NADH back to NAD+, thus glycolysis can continue to make ATP. Occurs in the cytosol.

Answer 209

Lactic acid and alcohol fermentation

Answer 210

uses the 2 NADH from glycolysis to reduces the 2 pyruvate into 2 lactic acid, thus NADH is oxidized back to NAD+ so that glycolysis may continue, this happens in muscle cells and occurs in red blood cells, which do not have mitochondria for aerobic respiration

Answer 211

is used to convert lactate back into glucose once oxygen is available again, it transports the lactate to liver cells, where it can be oxidized back to into pyruvate, it can then be used to form glucose, its an ideal energy generation

Answer 212

uses 2 NADH from glycolysis to convert the 2 pyruvate into 2 ethanol, NADH is oxidized back to NAD+ so that glycolysis may continue, this process has an extra step; decarboxylation of pyruvate into acetaldehyde, which is only then reduced by NADH into ethanol. pyruvate -CO2-> acetaldehyde -NAD+-> ethanol

Answer 213

only perform with oxygen present

Answer 214

can only undergo anaerobic respiration or fermentation, oxygen is poison to them

Answer 215

can perform either anaerobic or aerobic respiration or fermentation but prefers oxygen because it generate the most ATP

Answer 216

can only undergo aerobic respiration but cannot handle too much oxygen it can be harmful

Answer 217

only undergoes anaerobic fermentation but oxygen is not toxic

Answer 218

fats, carbohydrates, and proteins

Answer 219

when carbohydrates enter during glycolysis. It describes the release of glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen, a highly branched polysaccharide of glucose. Disaccharides can undergo hydrolysis to release two carbohydrate monomers, which can enter glycolysis. glyogen --> glucose-6-phosphate

Answer 220

the reverse process - the conversion of glucose into glycogen to be stored in the liver when energy and fuel is suffiecent

Answer 221

are present in the body as triglycerides, lipase are required to first digest fats into free fatty acids and alcohols, these digested pieces the can be absorbed by enterocytes to reform triglycerides.

Answer 222

process of digesting fats into free fatty acids and alcohols

Answer 223

absorb digested pieces in the small intestine to reform triglycerides

Answer 224

cells that store fat (triglycerides) and have hormone sensitive lipase to help release triglycerides back into circulation as lipoproteins or as free fatty acids bounded to albumin

Answer 225

enzyme that helps release triglycerides back into circulation as lipoproteins or free fatty acids

Answer 226

a protein that is bound to free fatty acids

Answer 227

are lipoprotein transport structures formed by the fusing of triglycerides with proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol. They leave enterocytes and enter lacteals.

Answer 228

small lymphatic vessels that take fats to the rest of the body.

Answer 229

is less desirable because the processes to get them into cellular respiration take considerable energy and proteins are needed for essential functions in the body

Answer 230

removal of NH3, then proteins can be broken down into amino acids, then shuttled to various parts of cellular respiration

Answer 231

is toxic, so it must be converted into uric acid or urea depending on the species and excreted from the body. Humans convert ammonia into urea which is then excreted as urine.

Answer 232

undergo beta-oxidation to be converted into acetyl-CoA, it requires an initial investment of ATP, but then is cleaved to yield two-carbon acetyl CoA molecules (that can be used in the Krebs cycle) and electron carriers (NADH or FADH2)

Answer 233

molecule that travels to the liver, it can undergo a conversion to enter glycolysis or make new glucose via gluconeogensis at the liver

Answer 234

get energy from what they eat

Answer 235

make their own energy (food)

Answer 236

creates chemical energy that is transferred through food-chains, reduces atmospheric carbon dioxide, and releases oxygen. 6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O + 6O2 photosynthesis + solar energy---> chemical energy

Answer 237

are light energy that are used to synthesize sugars (glucose) in photosynthesis.

Answer 238

is the process of taking inorganic carbon (CO2) and converts it into organic glucose. Photosynthesis takes electrons from photolysis and excites them using solar energy, thus these electrons are using to power carbon fixation

Answer 239

splitting of water molecules

Answer 240

out layer of the cells that provides protection and prevents water loss

Answer 241

right below the upper layer of the epidermis, has most of the chloroplast here

Answer 242

bottom of the leaf, has moderate chloroplast here, the leaf has a lot of space here due to gas movement.

Answer 243

are pores underneath the leaf for gas to enter and exit

Answer 244

surround the stomata and control their opening and closing

Answer 245

similar to mitochondria but found in plants and photosynthetic algae (not in cyanobacteria)

Answer 246

outer membrane, intermembrane, inner membrane, stroma (fluid material fills are inside inner membrane, calvin cycle), thylakoids (within stroma, light dependent reactions occur, granum is the entire stack, lamella is the junction in between), thylakoid lumen (interior of the thylakoid and H+ ions accumulate)

Answer 247

located in the thylakoid membrane, harnesses light energy to produce ATP and NADPH that is later used in the Calvin cycle

Answer 248

contain pigments such as chlorophyll and carotenoids that that absorb photons

Answer 249

special pair of chlorophyll molecules in the center of these proteins: photosystem II (680) and photosystem I (700) that are used in photosynthesis

Answer 250

is carried about by light dependent reactions

Answer 251

water is split, passing electrons to photosystem II and releasing protons into the thylakoid lumen

Answer 252

Photons excite in the reaction center of photosystem II, passing electrons to a primary electron acceptor

Answer 253

The primary electron acceptor sends the excited electrons into the electron transport chain (ETC). During redox reactions within the ETC, protons are pumped from the stroma to the thylakoid lumen. The electrons are then deposited into the photosystem I

Answer 254

Photons excite pigments in the photosystem I, energizing the electrons in the reactions center to be passed to a primary electron acceptor

Answer 255

the electrons are sent to a short ETC that terminates with NADP+ reductase, and anzyme then reduces NADP+ to NADPH using electrons and protons.

Answer 256

The accumulation of protons in the thylakoid lumen generates an electrochemical gradient that is used to produce ATP using ATP synthase (chemiosmosis), as H+ moves from the thylakoid lumen back into the stroma

Answer 257

happens when photosystem I passes electrons back to the first ETC, causing more proton pumping and more ATP production, while not NADPH is generated

Answer 258

known as the light independent reactions, it does not directly use light energy, but it can only occur of the light dependent reaction is providing ATP and NADPH. It takes place in the chloroplast stroma of plant mesophyll cells, it fixes CO2 that enters the stomata. 6CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + H+ --> 18 ADP + 19 Pi + 12 NADP+ + 1 glucose

Answer 259

Carbon fixation: carbon dioxide combines with 5-carbon ribulose -1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) to form 6-carbon molecules, which quickly break down into 3-carbon phosphoglycerates (PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by RuBisCo.

Answer 260

Reducation: PGA is phosphorylated by ATP and subsequently reduced by NADPH to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

Answer 261

Regeneration: Most of the G3P is converted | back to RuBP.

Answer 262

Carbohydrate synthesis: some of the G3P is | used to make glucose.

Answer 263

in addition to fixing carbon dioxide into RuBP, can also cause oxygen to bind to RuBP in a process called photorespiration

Answer 264

occurs in the stroma, producing a 2-carbon molecule phosphoglycolate that is shuttled to peroxisomes and mitochondria for conversion into PGA. Fixed carbon is lost as carbon dioxide in the process, overall there is a net loss of fixed carbon atoms and no new glucose would be made.

Answer 265

aka photorespiration, since 2-carbon phoshoglycolate is produces

Answer 266

is close to prevent water loss, thus oxygen accumulates and CO2 is used up. RuBisCo binds oxygen and photorespiration occurs.

Answer 267

normal photosynthesis, where a 3-carbon PGA is produced

Answer 268

produces 4-carbon oxaloacetate, occurs in plants living in hot environments.

Answer 269

of CO2 to prevent photorespiration

Answer 270

C3, C4, and CAM photosynthesis

Answer 271

PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 into a three carbon PEP molecule, producing oxaloacetate, which is converted into malate in the mesophyll cell

Answer 272

Malate is transferred to bundle sheath cells, which have lower concentrations of oxygen.

Answer 273

Malate is decarboxylated to release CO2, spatially isolating where CO2 is fixed byRuBisCo. The only drawback is that pyruvate is also produced and needs to be shuttled back to mesophyll cells using ATP energy.

Answer 274

Pyruvate is converted back into PEP.

Answer 275

uses temporal isolation of CO2 to prevent photorespiration in hot environments

Answer 276

During the day, stomata are closed to prevent transpiration (evaporation of water from plants).

Answer 277

During the night, stomata are open to let carbon dioxide in. Just like in C4 photosynthesis, PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 into PEP, producing oxaloacetate and afterwards malate. However, malate is stored in vacuoles instead of being shuttled to bundle sheath cells.

Answer 278

During the next day, the stomata are closed again and malate is converted back into oxaloacetate, which releases CO2 and PEP. Thus, CO2 accumulates in the leaf for use in the Calvin cycle through temporal isolation.

Answer 279

can take light energy and convert it into chemical energy via Photosynthesis

Answer 280

all DNA in a cell

Answer 281

separate DNA molecules that make up the genomes

Answer 282

two different versions of the same chromosome number. One from mom and one from dad.

Answer 283

identical, attached copies of a single chromosomes, forming dyads

Answer 284

replicated chromosomes containing sister chromatids that look like an "X"

Answer 285

regions of DNA that connect sister chromatids in a dyad

Answer 286

proteins on the sides of centromeres that help microtubules pull sister chromatids apart during cell division

Answer 287

division of the nucleus

Answer 288

physical division of the cytoplasm and cell membrane

Answer 289

one parent cell produces two daughter cells after division

Answer 290

describes the number of chromosomes sets found in the body.

Answer 291

humans, contain two sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes, 23 pairs) one from each parent

Answer 292

gametes, only contain one chromosome set (23 chromosomes)

Answer 293

one pair in the human body that determine sex

Answer 294

22 pairs in the human body that aren't sex chromosomes

Answer 295

haploid cells, egg and sperm

Answer 296

diploid cells that divide by meiosis to produce gametes

Answer 297

eukaryotic germ cell that can either divide to form more gametocytes or produce gametes

Answer 298

body cells excluding the gametes, diploid in humans

Answer 299

is divided into interphase (G1, G0, S, and G2) and the M phase. 90% of the cell cycle happens during interphase. M phase is where karyokinesis and cytokinesis occur.

Answer 300

``` Gap phase 1 (G1) Synthesis phase (S) Gap phase 2 (G2) Mitosis of M phase Cytokinesis of M phase ```

Answer 301

cell grows in preparation for cell division and checks for favorable conditions. If favorable, the cell will enter S phase. If unfavorable it will enter G0 phase.

Answer 302

cells still carry out their functions but halt in the cell cycle, cells that do not divide are stuck here

Answer 303

cell replicates its genome and centrosomes here and moves to G2 phase when completed.

Answer 304

cell continues to grow and prepare for cell division by checking DNA for any errors after replication, also checking for mitosis promoting factor (MPF), which needs to be an adequate amounts for cell cycle continuation. Organelles replicated here.

Answer 305

made of protein tubulin, are responsible for forming spindle apparatus which guides chromosomes during karyokinesis, organizing microtubule extension

Answer 306

Kinetochore, astral, and polar microtubules

Answer 307

extend centrosomes and attach to kinetochores on chromosomes

Answer 308

extend from centrosomes to cell membrane to orient the spindle apparatus.

Answer 309

extend from the two | centrosomes and connect with each other. Pushes centrosomes to opposite ends of the cell.

Answer 310

Centrioles are hollow cylinders made of nine triplets of microtubules (9x3 array).

Answer 311

organelles that contain a pair of centrioles oriented at 90 degree angles to one another (attached by interconnecting fibers), they replicate during the S phase of the cycle so that each daughter has one centrosome

Answer 312

surrounds the centrioles and is responsible for microtubules nucleation (anchoring tubulin to start microtubule extension).

Answer 313

is the stage in the cell cycle where karyokinesis and cytokinesis occurs.

Answer 314

is a type of karyokinesis (nuclear division) that involves a diploid parent cell dividing into two diploid daughter cells.

Answer 315

chromatin condenses into | chromosomes (X-shaped dyads). The nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear. Spindle apparatus forms.

Answer 316

the spindle apparatus guides | the chromosomes to the metaphase plate (midpoint of cell) in single file.

Answer 317

kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids apart. Now, the sister chromatids are considered separate chromosomes. Chromosome number doubles.

Answer 318

chromosomes have segregated | and nuclear membranes reform. In addition, nucleoli reappear and chromosomes decondense into chromatin.

Answer 319

is the physical separation of the | cytoplasm and cell membrane into two daughter cells.

Answer 320

cells, cytokinesis begins in telophase with the formation of a cell plate. The cell plate is created by vesicles from the Golgi apparatus and ends up producing the middle lamella (cements plant cells together).

Answer 321

cytokinesis begins in late anaphase with the formation of a cleavage furrow. The cleavage furrow is a contractile ring of actin microfilaments and myosin motors that pinches the cell into two.

Answer 322

cell division through limitations to growth and regulations to prevent cancerous growth.

Answer 323

surface to volume ratio and genome to volume ratio

Answer 324

cell division occurs when volume is too large because cells rely on the surface area of their cell membrane for transport of material. Decrease in S/V leads to division.

Answer 325

cell division occurs when volume is too large for cells to support with its limited genome. Decrease in G/V leads to division.

Answer 326

cell specific checkpoints, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), growth factors, density dependent inhibition, anchorage dependence.

Answer 327

G1 restriction point (checks for favorable conditions to grow, enters G0 phase if unfavorable), and end of G2 (checks accuracy of DNA replication and MPF levels), and M checkpoint (during metaphase, checks for chromosomal attachment to spindle fibers).

Answer 328

phosphorylate certain substrates to signal cell cycle progression. Activated by cyclin, a protein that cycles through stages of synthesis and degradation.

Answer 329

bind to receptors in the plasma membrane to signal for cell division.

Answer 330

halting cell division when density of cells is high.

Answer 331

dividing only when attached to an external surface.

Answer 332

cells in an organism

Answer 333

used by archaea, bacteria, and certain organelles to reproduce. Organisms will replicate their genome while cell division is happening (no S phase for DNA replication). And no spindle apparatus.

Answer 334

produces four haploid daughter cells from one diploid parent cell. It does this by repeating the steps of karyokinesis twice. Meiosis can be divided into meiosis I (homologous chromosomes separate) and meiosis II (sister chromatids separate).

Answer 335

(reductional division) produces two haploid daughter cells through separation of homologous chromosomes.

Answer 336

chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads). Also nucleolus and nuclear envelope will disappear. Homologous chromosomes pair up and crossing over occurs.

Answer 337

Synapsis - the pairing up of homologous chromosomes to form tetrads (aka bivalents). Synaptonemal complex - protein structure that forms between homologous chromosomes during synapsis. Tetrads (bivalents) - pair of two homologous chromosomes each with two sister chromatids. Chiasmata - where chromatids physically crossover during synapsis, causing genetic recombination. Genetic recombination - exchange of DNA between chromosomes to produce genetically diverse offspring.

Answer 338

tetrads randomly line up | double file on metaphase plate, also contributes to genetic diversity.

Answer 339

kinetochore microtubules shorten to separate homologous chromosomes from each other. Will not begin unless at least one chiasmata has formed within each tetrad.

Answer 340

after tetrads have been pulled to opposite poles, nuclear membranes reform. In addition, nucleoli reappear and chromosomes decondense into chromatin. Cleavage furrow formed in animal cells and cell plate formed in plant cells.

Answer 341

is very similar to mitosis because sister chromatids are separated. Two haploid cells divide into four haploid daughter cells.

Answer 342

chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads). Also nucleolus and nuclear envelope will disappear. Spindle apparatus forms. No crossing over.

Answer 343

chromosomes line up single file at the metaphase plate just like in mitosis.

Answer 344

kinetochore microtubules | shorten to pull sister chromatids apart. Sister chromatids become separate chromosomes and chromosomes number doubles

Answer 345

nuclear membranes reform, nucleoli reappear, and chromosomes decondense into chromatin. Four haploid daughter cells are produced in total.

Answer 346

During the S phase of the cell cycle, a human’s 46 chromosomes are duplicated. Afterwards, there are still 46 chromosomes but also 92 chromatids.

Answer 347

During S phase. This results in the same total numbers - 46 chromosomes and 92 chromatids. Each cell will have 23 chromosomes and 46 chromatids.

Answer 348

sister chromatids are | separated, resulting in 23 chromosomes (23 chromatids) in each daughter cell. These cells are haploid.

Biology DAT Ch. 1-5 Flashcards

(374 cards)