Biology II Flashcards
(203 cards)
1
Q
What are the accessory structures of the eye
A
eyebrows, eyelashes, eyelids, extrinsic muscles that move the eyeballs, and lacrimal (tear‐producing) apparatus.
2
Q
What are special senses
A
smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium (balance).
3
Q
What are general senses
A
General senses, which include somatic senses and visceral senses
4
Q
What are 4 major types of somatic senses
A
-Tactile sensations (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle)
-Thermal sensation (heat and cold)
-Pain sensations
-Proprioceptive (your body’s awareness of space) sensations (joint and muscle position sense and movements of the limbs)
5
Q
Where are somatic receptors located
A
skin, mucous membranes, muscles, tendons, and joints.
6
Q
What are the receptors of touch
A
-Meissner corpuscles, hair root plexuses, Merkel discs, and Ruffini corpuscles.
7
Q
What are the receptors of pressure and vibration
A
Pacinian corpuscles.
8
Q
What causes tickle and itch sensations
A
stimulation of free nerve endings
9
Q
___________________, free nerve endings in the epidermis and dermis, adapt to continuous stimulation.
A
Thermoreceptors
10
Q
_________________are free nerve endings that are located in nearly every body tissue; they provide pain sensations. (referred pain)
A
Nociceptors
11
Q
__________________________inform us of the degree to which muscles are contracted, the amount of tension present in tendons, the positions of joints, and the orientation of the head.
A
Proprioceptors
12
Q
What is adaption
A
Adaption is a decrease in sensation during a prolonged stimulus. Some receptors are rapidly adapting; others are slowly adapting.
13
Q
Define receptors
A
Receptors can be classified structurally by their microscopic features as free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings, or separate cells.
14
Q
- A region of the brain must _____________ and ______________ the nerve impulses into a sensation.
A
receive and integrate
15
Q
What is the process of sniffing
A
- Sniff those particals into your nose
- Most get filtered, but some get to your olfactory epithelium
a. Those dissolve in the mucus that coats it - Binds to receptors on olfactory neurons
- Fire action potential up axons
- Sent to olfactory portion of the brain
- Goes to (1) the frontal to differentiate and (2) to the limbic for memory or danger.
16
Q
The olfactory epithelium in the upper portion of the nasal cavity contains:
A
olfactory receptors, supporting cells , and Basal cells.
17
Q
What are the receptor cells of taste?
A
gustatory receptor cells, are located in taste buds
18
Q
what are the 5 primary tastes
A
salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami
19
Q
What’s the process of how we taste things
A
Food diffuses through taste pours and bind on receptors, the trigger and action potential, transmitted to taste centers of cerebral cortex, we release digestive enzymes to begin digestion.
20
Q
What are the three layers of the eyeball
A
(a) fibrous tunic (sclera and cornea), (b) vascular tunic (choroid, ciliary body, and iris), and (c) retina.
21
Q
What does the retina consist of ?
A
a neural layer (photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer, and ganglion cell layer) and a pigmented layer (a sheet of melanin-containing epithelial cells).
22
Q
Whats the difference between rods and cones
A
Rods do well helping us see in dark, cones do well in light and we can see color and stuff
23
Q
What are the three types of improper refraction
A
Improper refraction may result from myopia (nearsightedness), Hyperopia (farsightedness), or astigmatism (irregular curvature of the cornea or lens).
24
Q
What is the first step of seeing
A
the absorption of light rays by photopigments in rods and cones (photoreceptors).
25
What is the second step of seeing
Stimulation of the rods and cones then activates bipolar cells, which in turn activate the ganglion cells.
26
What does the external ear consists of?
auricle, external auditory canal, and eardrum.
27
What does the middle ear consist of?
The middle ear consists of the auditory (eustachian) tube, auditory ossicles, and oval window.
28
What does the internal ear consist of
The internal ear consists of the bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth. The internal ear contains the spiral organ (organ of Corti), the organ of hearing.
29
-Hair cells release neurotransmitter molecules that can initiate nerve impulses in sensory neurons.
-Sensory neurons in the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve terminate in the medulla oblongata. Auditory signals then pass to the midbrain, thalamus, and temporal lobes.
30
What is static equilibrium?
the orientation of the body relative to the pull of gravity. The maculae of the utricle and saccule are the sense organs of static equilibrium.
31
What is dynamic equilibrium
maintenance of body position in response to rotational acceleration and deceleration.
32
What is motion sickness
The confusion of your brain, you see that you're moving but you are standing still
33
What are the functions of the endocrine system
1. Help regulate:
i. Chemical composition and volume of internal environment (interstitial fluid). PANCREAS
ii. Metabolism and energy balance. THYROID
iii. Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers. THYROID
iv. Glandular secretions. MOST GLANDS
v. Some immune system activities. THYMUS
2. Control growth and development. PITUITARY
3. Regulate operation of reproductive systems. TESTES AND OVARIES
4. Help establish circadian (daily) rhythms. THYROID
34
What are the two main sections of the peripheral nervous system
Somatic and autonomic
35
What are the two motor neurons in the autonomic NS
-preganglionic neurons which are in brain and spinal cord
-Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
36
What are the two arms of the autonomic NS
sympathetic and parasympathetic
37
What is the sympathetic nervous system
-fight or flight
-takes over and increases activities
-think of the E divison
-Exercise, excitment, emergency, embarassment
38
What is the parasympathetic NS
-rest and digest
-conserve energy
-D division
-Digestion, defecation, dieresis
39
How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic NS impact the digestive system
Parasympathetic- increase activity
sympathetic- decrease activity
40
define sensation
The conscious or subconscious awareness of external and internal stimuli
41
what are the four sensory conditions
-A stimulus or change in the environment, capable of activating certain sensory neurons
-A sensory receptor must convert the stimulus to an electrical signal, which produces one or more nerve impulses if it is large enough.
-The nerve impulses must be conducted along a neural pathway from the sensory receptor to the brain.
-A region of the brain must receive and integrate the nerve impulses into a sensation.
42
Rods help us see in the _________ and cones help us perceive __________ in the ________
dark;colour;light
43
What are the steps we see by
1. absorption of light by rods and cones, which contain photopigments
2. activate bipolar and ganglionic cells
3. Image formation on retina involves refraction of light rays by cornea and lens which focus on inverted image on central focus of retina
4. For viewing close objects lens increases curvature and pupil constricts to prevent light from entering eye through periphery
44
myopia
nearsightedness
45
hyperopia
farsightedness
46
astigmatism
irregular curvature of cone/lens
47
What is the process by which we hear
1.Sound waves enter external medullary cavity
2.They strike the eardrum
3.Malleus starts to vibrate, going to the incus and the stapes
4.Stapes moves back and forth, pushing the oval window in and out
5.Oval window movement makes fluid pressure waves
6.Fluid pressure waves are transmitted causing it to bulge outward into the middle ear
7.Pressure waves continue in the cochlear duct
8.Pressure waves cause basilar membrane to vibrate
a. Which moves the hair cells. Bending of the hair cells stimulates hair cells to release NT molecule for nerve impulse
48
What is referred pain?
When pain you feel in your body is indicating a problem elsewhere
49
Mechanoreceptors
Somatosensory receptors which relay extracellular stimulus
50
osmoreceptors
sense osmotic pressure
51
Chemoreceptors
change in chemical comp of blod
52
What are the 10 basic endocrine glands
-hypothalamus
-adrenal
-thymus
-pituitary
-thyroid
-ovaries
-parathyroid
-testes
-pineal gland
pancreas
53
What's the difference between Lipid and Water soluable hormones
Lipids: affect cell function
Water: Alter cell fxn by activating plasma receptors with elicit production using 2nd messenger system
54
Insulin
-pancreas
-controls the bodies use of sugar. too much is hypoglycemia, too little is diabetes
55
Glucagon (Alpha)
-pancreas
-keeps blood sugar levels balanced with insulin
-triggered by drop in blood glucose
56
Epi and norepi
-released by adrenal gland, increase heart rate, and BP
57
Thyroid hormones
thyroxine (t4)
Triiodothychone (T3)
Parafollicular
Calcatonin
58
What is the thyroid mainly responsible for
-regulate oxygen use
-metabolism
-growth
59
Growth hormone
-anterior pit
-stimulates growth
60
ADH
-anterior pit
-liquid retention
61
Acetyl choline
Movement
62
Fat soluable?
1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific protein within the nucleus
4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe messenger RNA
6. New proteins are synthesized
63
What are the three functions of blood
-Transportation
-regulation
-protection
64
How does blood help transportation
-Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs
-carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to body cells
-heat and waste products away from cells
-hormones from endocrine glands to other body cells.
65
How does blood help with regulation
-Blood helps regulate the pH of body fluids.
-The heat-absorbing and coolant properties of the water in blood plasma and its variable rate of flow through the skin help adjust body temperature.-
- Blood osmotic pressure also influences the water content of cells.
66
How does blood help protect us?
-forming scabs, and blood clots
-white blood cells (phagocytes)
-producing proteins called antibodies.
-Blood contains additional proteins, called interferons and complement, that also help protect against disease.
67
What are the three main physical characteristics of blood?
-(thickness) greater than that of water
-temperature of 38˚ (100.4˚F)
- pH range between 7.35 and 7.45
68
Blood is a _____________________ that consists of cells surrounded by extracellular matrix.
liquid connective tissue
69
What is the unformed element in blood
plasma
70
What are the formed elements in blood
-Red blood cells (eurythrocytes)
-white blood cells (leukocytes)
-platelets
71
What are the types of white blood cells
Agranular and granular
72
What are the types of agranular leukocytes
-T and B lymphocytes and natural killer cells
-Monocytes (
73
What are the types of granular leukocytes
1. Neutrophils
2. Eosinophils
3. Basophils
74
Do erythrocytes contain nuclei
no
75
What is the average life-span of an erythrocyte?
120 days
76
How many erythrocytes are in healthy men and women
men- 5.4 million/mL
women- 4.8 million/mL
77
RBC formation, called __________, occurs in adult red bone marrow.
erythropoiesis
78
Are Leukocytes nucleated
yes
79
What is the purpose of leukocytes
to combat inflammation and infection. Neutrophils and macrophages (which develop from monocytes) do so through phagocytosis
80
What is the average life-span of leukocytes
a few hours to a few days
81
how many white blood cells to we have on average
5,000-10,000
82
What are platelets
disc-shaped cell fragments without nuclei that are formed from megakaryocytes and take part in hemostasis by forming a platelet plug.
83
How many platelets are in healthy blood
150,000-400,000
84
What is the normal lifespan of a platelet
5-9 days
85
-Red blood cells will be broken down my macrophages in 3 spots
-Spleen
-Liver
-Red bone marrow
86
WHAT IS HEMOSTASIS
-Hemostasis
-the stoppage of bleeding, involves vascular sp, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting.
-In vascular spasm, the smooth muscle of a blood vessel wall contracts.
-Platelet plug formation is the aggregation of platelets to stop bleeding.
-A clot is a network of insoluble protein fibers (fibrin) in which formed elements of blood are trapped. The chemicals involved in clotting are known as clotting factors.
87
O blood can receive
O blood
88
A blood can recieve
A blood and O blood
89
B blood can recieve
O blood and B blood
90
AB blood can receive
all blood
91
Cardiac muscles are...
-striated
-involuntary
-grouped in bundles of fibers
92
what is the membrane that encloses the heart
Pericardium
93
What are the three layers of the heart
epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
94
The blood flows through the heart from the superior and inferior ___________ and the __________ to the right atrium, through the right ventricle, and through the ___________ to the lungs.
venae cavae
coronary sinus
pulmonary trunk
95
From the lungs, blood flows through the pulmonary veins into the _________________, through the left ventricle, and out through the _____.
left atrium
aorta.
96
What is the purpose of valves in the heart
prevent the backflow of blood in the heart.
97
What are the atrioventricular valves
-tricuspid valve on the right side of the heart
- the bicuspid (mitral) valve on the left.
98
How do atrioventricular valves work?
chordae tendineae, and their papillary muscles stop blood from flowing back into the atria. Each of the two arteries that leave the heart has a semilunar valve.
99
Which valve is for the left atrium
Bicuspid (mitral)
100
what is pulse
the rhythmic expansion and elastic recoil of a system artery after each contraction of the left ventricle.
101
Myocardial infarction
HEART ATTACK, gross necrosis of myocardial tissue due to interrupted blood supply death of muscular tissue in the heart due to lack of oxygen
102
Ischemia:
Ischemia: a lack of sufficient blood to a body part due to obstruction of constriction of a blood vessel
103
Angina Pectoris
Angina Pectoris: a pain in the chest related to reduced coronary circulation due to coronary artery disease or spasms of vascular smooth muscle in coronary arteries
104
the heart muscle does not receive an adequate amount of blood because of an interruption in the blood supply. This can be caused by atherosclerosis or coronary artery spasm.
coronary artery disease (CAD)
105
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a process in which fatty substances are deposited in the walls of the medium-sized and large arteries resulting in an impeded blood flow.
106
What are some congenital defects
patent ductus arteriosus,
atrial septal defects (ASD),
ventricular septal defect (VSD),
Tetralogy of Fallot.
107
Why does exercise help heart health
■ Sustained exercise increases oxygen demand on muscles.
■ Among the benefits of aerobic exercise are increased maximal cardiac output, decreased blood pressure, weight control, and increased ability to dissolve clots.
108
What is the max your heart rate should be
heart rate should never exceed 120 minus your age
109
What is an ECG
electrocardiogram
110
What is the P wave
depolarization of the atria
111
What is the QRS complex
onset of ventricular depolarization
112
What is the T wave
ventricular repolarization
113
What is the system of conduction in the heart
1. Sinoatrial node- conducts action potential through atria which finish contracting at the same time
2. Atrioventricular node-action potential slows considerably, providing time for the atria to empty their blood into the ventricles.
3. Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)- action potential conducts from atria to ventrical
4. Right and left bundle branches- action potential course through the interventricular septum toward the apex of the heart.
5. Purkinje fibers
rapidly conduct the action potential, first to the apex of the ventricles and then upward to the remainder of the ventricular myocardium. Then, a fraction of a second after the atria contract, the ventricles contract.
114
Where is the SA node found
just above the opening of the superior vena cava
115
Where is the AV node found
the interatrial septum, just anterior to the opening of the coronary sinus
116
What is Cardiac output
the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle into the aorta each minute:
CO = stroke volume x beats per minute.
117
What is stroke volume
the amount of blood ejected by a ventricle during ventricular systole. It is related to stretch on the heart before it contracts, forcefulness of contraction, and the amount of pressure required to eject blood from the ventricles.
118
Heart rate is affected by...
-hormones (epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroid hormones),
-ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+),
-age
-gender
-physical fitness
-body temperature.
119
Pressure is related to ________________ of chamber
size and volume
120
Blood flow is controlled by opening and closing of ________________ and contraction/ relaxation of _____________________
valves; myocardium
121
what does coronary cardiac circulation do
delivers Oxygenated blood to myocardium and removes CO2 from it
122
Doxygenatied blood from coronary cardiac circulation returns to __________________ via coronary sinus
right atrium
123
What are the steps of blood flow
- Superior/inferior vena cava, coronary sinus
- right atrium
-tricuspid
-right ventricle
-pulmonary valve
-pulmonary trunk and arteries
-lungs
-pulmonary veinss
-left atrium
-bicuspid
-left ventricle
-aortic valve
-arota
-arteries
-arterioles
capillaries
-venules
-veins
124
What are the functions of blood vessels
1. carries blood away from the heart (in arteries), transports it through the tissues of the body (in arterioles, capillaries, and venules), and then returns it to the heart (in veins).
2. Exchange of substances between the blood and body tissue cells occurs as blood flows through the capillaries.
3. Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood through interstitial fluid into tissue cells. Waste products, including carbon dioxide, diffuse from tissue cells through interstitial fluid into the blood.
125
What do arteries do?
carry blood away from the heart. Their walls consist of three layers. The structure of the middle layer gives arteries their two major properties, elasticity and contractility.
126
What are arterioles and what do they do?
small arteries that deliver blood to capillaries. Through constriction and dilation, arterioles play a key role in regulating blood flow from arteries into capillaries.
127
What are capillaries and what do they do?
microscopic blood vessels through which materials are exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid. Precapillary sphincters regulate blood flow through capillaries.
128
Capillary blood pressure
“pushes” fluid out of capillaries into interstitial fluid (filtration). Blood colloid osmotic pressure “pulls” fluid into capillaries from interstitial fluid (reabsorption).
129
Autoregulation
local adjustments of blood flow in response to physical and chemical changes in a tissue.
130
Autoregulation
local adjustments of blood flow in response to physical and chemical changes in a tissue.
131
What are venules and what do they do?
small vessels that emerge from capillaries and merge to form veins. They drain blood from capillaries into veins.
132
Veins
consist of the same three layers as arteries but have less elastic tissue and smooth muscle. They contain valves that prevent backflow of blood. Weak venous valves can lead to varicose veins.
133
What is a venous pump
, the volume of blood flowing back to the heart through systemic veins, occurs due to the pumping action of the heart, aided by skeletal muscle contractions (the skeletal muscle pump), and breathing (the respiratory pump).
134
What are the steps of skeletal pump
-At rest the valves are open and blood flows upward towards the heart.
-Contraction of leg muscles pushes blood closer to the heart. The lower valve closes.
-Just after muscle relaxation, the valve closer to the heart closes and the lower valve opens.
135
Blood flow is determined by
pressure and vascular resistance
136
Blood pressure is highest in the ________ and large systemic arteries; it drops progressively as distance from the _____________ increases. Blood pressure in the right atrium is close to 0 mm Hg.
Aorta; left ventricle
137
An increase in blood volume ____________ blood pressure, and a decrease in blood volume ___________ it.
Increase; decrease
138
What is vascular resistance? What does it depend on?
the opposition to blood flow mainly as a result of friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels. It depends on the size of the blood vessel lumen, blood viscosity, and total blood vessel length.
139
Blood pressure and blood flow are regulated by
neural and hormonal negative feedback systems and by autoregulation.
140
Where is the CV center and what does it do?
in the medulla oblongata helps regulate heart rate, stroke volume, and size of blood vessel lumen.
141
Vasomotor nerves (sympathetic) control
vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
142
Baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive receptors)
send impulses to the cardiovascular center to regulate blood pressure.
143
Chemoreceptors
(receptors sensitive to concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions) also send impulses to the cardiovascular center to regulate blood pressure.
144
What are the two major circulatory routes
systematic and pulmonary circulation
145
What does systematic circulation do
takes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle through the aorta to all parts of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
146
What is vascular resistance? What does it depend on
the opposition to blood flow mainly as a result of friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels. It depends on the size of the blood vessel lumen, blood viscosity, and total blood vessel length.
147
Deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart through the ________________. All veins of the systemic circulation flow into either the superior or inferior ___________or the _____________________, which empty into the ________________
systematic veins; vena cava; coronary sinus; right atrium
147
What does pulmanory circulation do
takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the air sacs of the lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the air sacs to the left atrium. It allows blood to be oxygenated for systemic circulation.
148
How does fetal circulation work
-It involves the exchange of materials between fetus and mother via the placenta
- The fetus derives O2 and nutrients from and eliminates CO2 and wastes into maternal blood. At birth, when pulmonary (lung), digestive, and liver functions begin, the special structures of fetal circulation are no longer needed.
149
normal pulse rate is
75 BPM
150
What is blood pressure, how is it measured
the pressure exerted by blood on the wall of an artery when the left ventricle undergoes systole and then diastole. It is measured by a sphygmomanometer.
151
what is Systolic blood pressure
the force of blood recorded during ventricular contraction.
152
what is Diastolic blood pressure (DBP)
the force of blood recorded during ventricular relaxation. The normal blood pressure of a young adult male is less than 120/80.
153
What is hypertension
consistantly high bP
154
What is an anusrym
is a thin, weakened section of the wall of an artery or a vein that bulges outward, forming a balloonlike sac
155
What are common causes of anurysm
atherosclerosis, syphilis, congenital blood vessel defects, and trauma
156
What happens if an anurysm is untreated
the aneurysm enlarges and the blood vessel wall becomes so thin that it bursts. The result is massive hemorrhage along with shock, severe pain, stroke, or death.
157
What happens if an anurysm is untreated
the aneurysm enlarges and the blood vessel wall becomes so thin that it bursts. The result is massive hemorrhage along with shock, severe pain, stroke, or death.
158
How does age impact the CV system
■ General changes associated with aging include reduced elasticity of blood vessels, reduction in cardiac muscle size, reduced cardiac output, and increased systolic blood pressure.
■ The incidence of coronary artery disease (CAD), congestive heart failure (CHF), and atherosclerosis increases with age.
159
What is the innate immunity
Immunity that you are born with. this includes your skin and mucous membranes
the second innate immunity line of defense is Phagocytes
Anti microbial proteins
Attack cells
Inflammation
160
What is adaptive immunity
-Takes longer and is more specific
-Can take up to three days for your body to recognize something and fight against it
161
What are the functions of the lymphatic system
1. drains excess interstitial fluid
2. transportation
3. immune responses
162
What are the components of the lymphatic system
Consists of lymph, lymphatic vessels, structures and organs that contain lymphatic tissue, and red bone marrow
163
Components of blood plasma filter through blood capillary walls to form _______________________________, the fluid that bathes the cells of body tissues. After interstitial fluid passes into lymphatic vessels, it is called _________
interstitial fluid; lymph
163
Components of blood plasma filter through blood capillary walls to form _______________________________, the fluid that bathes the cells of body tissues. After interstitial fluid passes into lymphatic vessels, it is called _________
interstitial fluid; lymph
164
Lymphatic vessels begin as lymphatic ____________ in tissue spaces between cells.
capillaries
165
The lymphatic capillaries merge to form larger lymphatic vessels, which ultimately drain into the thoracic duct or right __________
lymphatic duct
166
Located at intervals along lymphatic vessels are lymph nodes, masses of B cells and T cells surrounded by a ___________________
capsule
167
How many litres of fluid will the body filter through each day. How much will stay in the system and eventually be put back
20;7
168
What is the passage of lymph
-Blood capillaries (Blood plasma)
-intersitial spaces (interstitial fluid)
-lymphatic capillaries (lymph)
-lymphatic vessels + lymph nodes (lymph)
-lymphatic ducts (lymph)
-junction of jugular and subclavian veins (blood plasma)
169
lymph flows due to
the “milking action” of skeletal muscle contractions and pressure changes that occur during inhalation
170
where do t and b cells come from and where to they mature
Stem cells in red bone marrow give rise to mature B cells and to immature T cells that migrate to the thymus, where they mature into functional T cells.
171
What is the thymus and where is it located
two lobed organ located posterior to the sternum, medial to the lungs, and superior to the heart
172
The secondary lymphatic organs and tissues are the sites where most immune responses occur. true or false
true
173
What are the secondary lymphatic organs
lymph nodes, the spleen, and lymphatic nodules
174
Lymph nodes contain
B cells that develop into plasma cells, T cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages
175
Lymph enters nodes through _________ lymphatic vessels and exits through __________ lymphatic vessels
afferant; efferant
176
What is the single largest mass of lymphatic tissue in the body
Spleen
177
B cells divide into plasma cells in the:
spleen
178
macrophages phagocytize worn-out red blood cells and platelets in the
spleen
179
What are lymphatic nodules
oval-shaped concentrations of lymphatic tissue that are not surrounded by a capsule
180
where are lymphatic nodules found
throughout the mucosa of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
181
What is innate immunities second line of defense
-antimicrobial
-phagocytes
-natural killer (NK) cells
-inflammation, and fever
182
What is an antigen
any substance that the adaptive immune system recognizes as foreign (nonself). They recognize and do not attack their own tissues and cells
183
What are the two types of adaptive immunity
cell-mediated immunity and antibody-mediated immunity
184
What occurs in cell mediated immunity
cytotoxic T cells directly attack invading antigens.
185
What is the result of clonal formation
is the formation of a clone of cells that can recognize the same specific antigen as the original lymphocyte
186
A lymphocyte that undergoes clonal selection gives rise to two major types of cells in the clone:
effector cells and memory cells
187
Memory cells may be:
helper T, cytotoxic, or B cells
188
Once activated, a B cell undergoes clonal selection, forming a clone of ___________ cells and ____________________ cells.
plasma; memory
189
what are the effector cells of a B cell clone. what do they do?
plasma calls, they secret eantibodies
190
effects of age on lymphatic system
more susceptible to infections and malignancies, respond less well to vaccines, and produce more autoantibodies.
191
T cell responses _____________________ with age
decrease
192
what are the different types of T cells
1. Memory T
2. Suppressors
3. Natural killer cells
4. Helper T cells
5. Cytoxic
193
What is the system of lymphatic flow
-blood capillaries (blood plasma)
-interstitial spaces (interstitial fluid)
-lymphatic capillaries (lymph)
-lymphatic vessels + lymph nodes
-lymphatic ducts
-junction of jugular and subclavian veins (blood plasma again)
194
Describe Macrophages
-Largest
-perform phagocytosis
-presenting info about foreign antigens to lymphocytes
-kill those things so fast
195
Dendritic cells
-Collecting samples by covering itself with the dead bacteria
o Enters the super hwy to the lymphnodes
o Tells the T cells what to do
One cell will recognize it and be activated by dendrites
196
Neutrophils
-Neutrophils
-Suicide bombers
-Love killing so they kill themselves so they don’t call you
-Cause damage to your own cells
-Vomit toxic stuff everywhere
197
T cell
* T cell
o Activated and rest of immune systems arise
o T cells clone over and over
o They will split into 2 groups
Battlefield
Memory
o T cells help reactivate macrophage and then it knows what it needs to do
It was tired and wants to give up
198
What are the types of T cells
-Cytotoxic
-NKT
-Memory
199
B cells
-Protein super weapons
-T cells look for these B cells
-Soldiers realize they are no longer needed and kill themselves
-T cells remain as memories
-Some B cells will stay alive and continue to produce antibodies
200
what are the cells involved in cell mediated immunity
-helper t
-cytotoxic t
-suppressor t
201
What do lymphnodes do
filter through lymph and remove foriegn substances through phagocyotiis, immune reactions,
